Music Video

When considering my choice of song, at the time of listening once again to Man on the Silver Mountain by British rock band Rainbow, I released that most of the lyrics could be reflected by handcrafted visuals, particularly through stop motion. Although the majority of music videos in existence do not mirror the song lyrics, due to having very little knowledge on the design and production of such an art form, I saw Andrew Goodwin's theories on illustration and amplification to be the most suitable way of approaching my task. Furthermore, by using a form of animation to complete my work, I was able to avoid including any real people in the visuals, as most music videos have a tendency to do. Not only did this enable me to work freely, but kept my work unique and different from others.

Since the majority of the video is filmed and edited as stop motion, my main influence was a small collection of pre-existing music videos that implemented the same technique. Although I knew that I would never produce a piece as astoundingly impressive, the principle video that inspired me to use stop motion was that of Peter's Gabriel's Sledgehammer. Winning nine awards at the 1987 MTV Music Video Awards, it is in my mind, one of the most spectacular music videos of all time, not only due to the finished result, but the sheer amount of effort put in by the creators. Two other music videos that also inspired me to approach my task in the way that I did, were the ones for There, There by Radiohead, and Sober by TOOL, mainly due to the fact that they base their visuals around objects that are a combination of being hand-made and small materials taken from larger counterparts.

Unfortunately, due to not having a professional setup to film the video, certain aspects of production are rather deficient and unsatisfactory. For example, the lighting is not at all consistent throughout the video, as although the window blinds were closed constantly, the outside environment still managed to affect the saturation and colour scheme.
In terms of camera positioning, what with creating a stop motion video, the device had to be kept in the exact same position for the whole of production. This requirement revealed itself to be slightly more difficult than I initially imagined. The camera had to be removed multiple times from the tripod in order for it to be charged. Usually, charging would occur between each new segment of the video, meaning that whenever the visuals changed to present something completely different, the background and main set piece of the mountain would unintentionally move position slightly, breaking contingency and visual flow.
Each segment of the video is a general reflection of the song lyrics. Therefore, the segments have to begin and end as soon as the corresponding song verses do, which means that timing is key. Overall, my video has been edited to meet this requirement very well, due to careful resizing and placing of each frame.
The main set piece of the mountain was constructed by shaping a large piece of cardboard into a cone, before sticking on scrunched up pieces of newspaper covered in kitchen roll, and painting it all silver. The man was created by spreading orange plasticine over a small wooden doll in order to determine the structure, while still enabling the figure's limbs to move. Ultimately, I would say that the set design eventuated rather well, and emitted a whimsical, childlike impression similar to my main inspiration. Although others disagreed, I do, however, feel as though the video would appear better if the background room was not within frame by having a backdrop big enough to cover the surrounding area.

In order to improve upon my video, I would most certainly implement a professional lighting setup, and stick the tripod legs to floor, so that the general appearance stays consistent throughout, and a strong level of contingency is present. I would also hope to have a backdrop that is large enough to cover up the background room.

Music Video Questionnaire

After analysing and applying the theories of Andrew Goodwin and Carol Vernallis to various music videos, I produced a short questionnaire of eight multiple-choice questions, in order to gather primary data in the form of peoples' opinions on what qualities determine a music video to be successful. To increase the probability of my results being evenly diversified, I not only used questions that would give me insight into the personal preferences of individuals, but presented the questionnaire to a total of fifteen people from different backgrounds.
The questionnaire can be deemed by me as a success, since it provided a wide range of quantitive data relevant to my study. The variety of people and large sample size meant that my questionnaire was much less likely to be biased in any shape or form. In addition, by only consisting of multiple-choice questions, the survey results were easy to analyse and summarise into simple pie charts. A problem that has arisen from this, however, is the lack of qualitative data, since the inclusion of short-answer questions would have enabled the participants to express their opinions more freely, by not being limited to choose from a set amount of options. Furthermore, most of the participants had little to professional expertise in the subject matter, meaning that the results may not be fully relevant to my study.

In order to gain accurate results, I included thirteen music genres as options for the participants to choose from. 'Pop' revealed itself to be the most popular, with 'Rock' earning second place. 'Jazz' was chosen by two people, whereas 'Metal', 'Hip Hop', 'Soul' and 'Electronic' only gained one point each. Sadly, 'Rhythm and Blues', 'Classical', 'Reggae', 'Folk', 'Country', and 'Ska' did not receive any votes, as they seem to be rather obscure genres in the modern era. Although 'Pop' was chosen the most overall, I did not wish to work with the most mainstream genre, as I feel as though the majority of music videos for pop songs lack imagination and creativity. Thus, I decided to focus my attention on the 'Rock' option, as it reached second place overall in the questionnaire, and is a genre that I believe to be filled with unique and distinctive music videos that often make for interesting viewing experiences.

Perhaps the most important aspect of this study in relation to my music video production, is the genre that my work associated itself with. To help choose, I followed Andrew Goodwin's Dancing in the Distraction Factory theory on the types of music video genre that exist, to conclude the multiple-choice options that should be made available. My results informed me that most people prefer 'Conceptual/Experimental' music videos, while the other types - particularly 'Location' - are much less appreciated. This benefits me, as I was able to abide by the most popular result, since I wanted to create a piece that could be considered experimental and uncommon, as I would have less reason to follow any kind of typical music video structure.

So that I had an impression of the main reason as to why most people were encouraged to watch certain music videos, I made sure that the available options were reasons common enough for the participants to relate and choose whichever best suited them. Equal to my suspicions, the option that received the highest amount of votes was 'The Credited Artist/Band', which did not support me. The band that I had in mind, Rainbow, is not at all mainstream nowadays, since it is no longer performing, and is labelled as a rock band - rock being a genre that I sadly consider to be dying. In the end, I decided to ignore the results gathered from this question, as I suspected beforehand that they would not benefit me.

Hoping to gain insight into which typical music video feature is considered the most appealing by the most people asked, I provided five options that I saw as being common within the majority of music videos. To my concern, most of the participants voted for the 'Choreography' option. In my opinion, it would seem that most of those who chose 'Choreography', are also the same participants who voted for 'Pop' as the music genre that they listen to the most in the very first question. Therefore, since I decided to base my video around a different genre of music, I saw no reason to include the most popular featured voted for, especially since I did not wish for it to include people. Overall, I decided to take advantage of the options that achieved joint second place: 'Lighting' and 'Colour', as they were better suited to the unique style of music video that I had in mind.

Following the four main categories that Carol Vernallis' The kindest cut: functions and meanings of music video editing theory can be separated into, I immediately had four options for participants to choose from in their task to answer which aspect of music video production they consider to be the most important. Fortunately for me, 'Editing' received the most votes, and 'Narrative' followed close behind. These two aspects were the ones that I was hoping to focus on from the beginning, as they both greatly affect the creativity and inventiveness of music videos. Since I wished to produce a piece that could be considered unique, I was able to accept my results in this case, as they would help me achieve such a goal.

Despite when answering if they believed whether music videos increases the success of the songs that they are made for, most of the participants were split between 'Yes' and 'No', these results did not technically affect my work in any way, since the question itself was not relevant to the overall production of my music video. In addition, the final third of participants were either unsure or believed that their answer would change depending on other aspects, meaning that since the remaining two options can be grouped together, the whole group of individuals asked was split evenly three ways, thereby not providing me with an official answer.

Similar to the results of the previous question, the most popular result does not have any impact on my work. In this case, the fact that most people voted 'Yes' for believing that the credited artists/bands should be featured within their music videos, cannot affect my music video's final design, since I obviously have no logical way of filming any official band, let alone one that originally had a vocalist who is now dead. In addition, only one less participant voted for 'No' than 'Yes', and so it was easier for me to ignore the largest group of the same results.

To my advantage, when asked if they believe whether music videos should mirror the song lyrics, the majority of participants selected the 'Yes' option. This helped me, as I was wanting to match the visuals to match the lyrics of the song itself, since such a technique would be easier to plan beforehand, as well as film. Additionally, I can name very few music videos that follow this method, meaning that the idea seemed uncommon to me, which would help my work achieve a certain level of individuality.

Overall, I see the questionnaire as a success, but obviously not devoid of problems. The main improvement that I would make if I were to redo this survey, would be to include short-answer questions so that the participants are not restricted from sharing their personal opinions in more detail. I would also try to ensure that some of the participants had a reasonable amount of background knowledge in the area of music video production, so that the validity of the results could be greater, and perhaps more in favour of my choices.

Carol Vernallis' Music Video Theory

The kindest cut: functions and meanings of music video editing is a piece written by Carol Vernallis and published in 2001, described as an analysis of the difference between film and music video editing. In her theory, she considers a number of aspects, including, the role of editing, continuity and meaning, the ways in which sound and editing are synchronised through editing, the impact of star image through regular artist close-ups, and how editing reflects the music.
Vernallis' theory can be separated into four main categories which she believes to be the most significant concepts that all correlate to the ways in which music videos are produced. These categories are narrative, editing, camera movement and framing, and diegesis.

Narrative, in regards to music video production, is the visual response to the song itself, as Vernallis believes many videos to accurately reflect the song's meaning, or at least attempt to do so. Narrative themes may occur throughout the videos, but will often be shown in montages, as continuity is not required within music videos, unlike films. Differently, the narrative may be disjointed and generally confusing, as such a technique may cause the audience to focus greater on the story within the song itself, rather than the visuals. Music videos usually always need a subject to drive it forwards, but it may not always be the narrative, since it may cause the audience to generate questions, therefore wishing for more from the artist. In addition, Vernallis states that certain music videos may not have clear endings, therefore lacking in closure for the audience. She sees the main reason for this choice to be so that the narrative's conclusion is left open for the audience's interpretation, as each individual is engaged further into the story, based on their own personal opinions.
The music video for The One That Got Away by Katy Perry clearly shows the meaning of the lyrics and story through the visuals. The narrative can be seen as disjointed, since the setting frequently changes from the past to the present. The main theme throughout the video is a past relationship of Katy, and how she wishes that she could change what happened, which can through a duplication technique in which an older version of Katy appears to be speaking to her younger self at the time of the relationship. The video does reveal what happened to her past lover, thereby satisfying the audience by providing them with a definitive ending.

Editing is an extremely vital part of music video production, as it serves as the basis of the videos themselves, being placed even before the narrative in terms of priority. According to Vernallis, a main convention of music video editing is that it can break or disrupt the traditional style and 'rules' of continuity editing, making it a complete contrast to 'invisible' continuity editing featured within films. Other recognisable editing techniques of music videos include jump cuts, as well as cutting to the rhythm of the music.
In terms of the music video for Tik Tok by Kesha (stylised as Ke$ha at the time), the editing makes itself deliberately noticeable by consisting of jump cuts at the beginning of the video, presenting Kesha waking up in a bathtub while rapidly flashing monochrome shots of a party taking place, thereby informing the audience of what may have happened the previous night. Additionally, throughout the video, cuts occur in synchronisation with the beats of the song.

Camera movement and framing are suggested within Vernallis' theory to include establishing shots as a common element in music videos, alongside close-ups and extreme close-ups of the artist. Vernallis also argues that camera movement in music videos is often synchronised to the rhythm of the song in order to bring more attention to the artist. Furthermore, she states that framing in such videos is often very distinctive depending on the genre.
Within the Brazil version of the music video for Michael Jackson's They Don't Care About Us, establishing shots are used throughout, in order to focus on the poor living conditions for many citizens of the South American country. Michael is revealed through a dolly shot, as the camera smoothly travels forwards down a narrow alleyway, while presenting the cramped living area. The framing used within the video presents the artist as an important figure, due to him often being in the centre of the shot, or the closest person to the front of the camera.

Diegesis can be described as a style of fictional storytelling that presents an interior view of a world in which details about the world itself and the experiences of its characters are revealed explicitly through narrative. Therefore, in the case of music videos, 'diegesis' relates to the 'worlds' created within. In Vernallis' theory, she explains that the diegesis is revealed slowly over time, enabling the story to develop. She also states that repetition of certain shots and frames will be present in music videos, in order for such visuals to appear more important than others. Finally, Vernallis declares that some music videos may not always seem completed in terms of the stories that they tell, so as to come across as being disrupted in some way, causing deliberate gaps in the audience's understanding of the diegesis.
As the music video for Hozier's Take Me to Church plays, it unravels a story about a homosexual couple, as well as the religious troubles that their bond causes for them. The repetition of a mid-shot of the two men kissing, and a long shot of them digging a hole in the ground to hide a box, shows the significance of their relationship and how they attempt to keep it secret. The video can be seen as incomplete, since when Hozier's partner is beaten by men who obviously disapprove of his lifestyle choice, and the box is cast into a great fire - all while Hozier watches in shock from a distance - the video concludes without giving the audience any idea as to what happens next.

Andrew Goodwin's Music Video Theory

Dancing in the Distraction Factory is a book written by Andrew Goodwin and published in 1992, described as combining textual analysis of music videos with a comprehensive understanding of music television as a cultural industry. Since the release of Goodwin’s work, he has been considered one of the first individuals to analyse music videos as an art form.
Although Goodwin’s book has been summarised in many different ways, most consist of six particular points made about music videos, all of which are interpreted similarly within each version. These aspects are the relationship between the lyrics and the visuals, the relationship between the music and the visuals, genre, artist close-ups, star iconography, and intertextuality.

The relationship between the lyrics and the visuals is a convention in which aspects of the visuals - such as themes, mise-en-scène, and events - illustrate, amplify, or contradict the song lyrics.
Illustration is the concept of using visuals that mirror the lyrics, in order to help portray the message of the song. A music video that uses this technique extensively is the one for Price Tag by Jessie J, featuring B.o.B. In the video, a fake tree with paper money attached to its branches can be seen, while the nouns ‘money’ and ‘price tag’ are sang, along with Jessie J touching her jewellery when using the word ‘bling’, and even onomatopoeia in the form of ‘cha-ching’. Along with many other examples, when Jessie J is stood next to a wooden sign with an arrow facing left and the other facing right, saying the words ‘left’ and ‘right’ forces the camera to move the corresponding way. Even parts of B.o.B’s rap is illustrated through the visuals, since when he says the word ‘cars’, a toy car appears in the size of a real one.
Amplification is similar to illustration, but instead of the visuals matching the lyrics exactly, in this case, the visuals are somewhat exaggerated to portray the song’s message in a wider proportion. The music video for Cyndi Lauper’s song Girls Just Want to Have Fun is a sufficient example of amplification. Just like most music videos that present the artist, Cyndi is lip-synching to the lyrics, creating a visual representation of the song’s original recording. However, after Cyndi sings ‘my mother says’, the words that follow (‘when you gonna live your life right?’) are lip-synched by a figure that appears to be her mother. Similarly, after the lyrics ‘my father yells’, the following words (‘what you gonna do with your life?’) appear to be spoken by a man who is supposedly her father, further illustrating the song’s message and realism. In addition to lip-synching, Cyndi and many other individuals dance to the tune throughout the video, which also helps to reinforce the song lyrics of girls wanting to 'have fun'.
Contradiction is the complete opposite of illustration, as it uses visuals that either completely ignore the song lyrics, or deliberately stand against the lyrics by presenting an antithesis. For instance, in Billy Idol’s music video for Dancing With Myself, when he is riding a lift to the roof of a skyscraper, he sings ‘there’s no one else in sight’, despite the visuals showing a mass of what appears to be zombies attempting to climb up the walls of the building on the outside. Furthermore, during the final chorus, when Billy is stood atop the skyscraper, the zombies reach the top and begin to dance with him, all while he sings ‘dancing with myself’, as if he is all alone. Although one may interpret the lyrics as Billy seeing himself alone as the only live creature dancing, the words sung still contradict the visuals to a large degree.

In terms of sound, the relationship between the music and the visuals is a convention similar to that of the relationship between the lyrics and the visuals. However, in this case, aspects of the visuals illustrate, amplify, or contradict the actual tune itself rather than lyrics.
Illustration is the notion of instruments being visually reflected, as the audience sees exactly where the sound is being created. Millions of music videos utilise this technique, since it is much easier to make complete use of than others. In addition, many people may consider other techniques to be fake, due to including visuals that paint a manufactured picture. One example of many videos that links music and visuals together through illustration, is the one for The House of the Rising Sun by The Animals. Although the sound played is not actually created by the instruments viewed onscreen, the audience is nevertheless lead to believe that what they see is what they hear, due to the band pretending to play the correct notes at the exact same time as those within the song. Within the video, one can see that neither of the two electric guitars, nor the keyboard, is plugged into any sort of amplifier, despite the notes that play in the actual music clearly sounding as if they were recorded when amplified. In order to make music sound as best as possible, it is required to be recorded using professional equipment designed for sound quality. Since the aim of any music video is to visually advertise the song itself, the band must stay true to the original recording.
Amplification, being similar to illustration, is the concept of the visuals reflecting the tune of the music, but portraying it in a way that exaggerates and increases the mental impact of the audio, usually in order to make it appear more powerful. A rather popular example of a music video that utilises visual amplification of the sound itself, is that of Arctic Monkey's Do I Wanna Know?. The video is entirely animated, featuring an illustrated sound wave that morphs into a wide variety of other imagery. Throughout the video, the sound wave moves in response to most notes played by the drums and lead electric guitar, as well as the majority of syllables within the words of the vocals. Once a sound has been played, the sound wave begins to contract into the form of a horizontal line, before vibrating outwards in time with each new sound. Later on in the video, multiple waves occasionally appear, before the final chorus results in a fast plethora of shifting imagery, moving into transformation in perfect synchronisation with the tune. This visually appealing video helps to add effect to many of the sounds heard throughout the song, resulting in a more powerful listening experience.
Contradiction, seen as the opposite of illustration, poses the idea of the visuals either overlooking the style of the music, or even challenging the style by presenting itself as a contrary. A music video that strongly fits this criteria is the one for In Bloom by Nirvana. The colourless and blurred camera quality makes the video seem as though it was filmed in the early 1960s, despite actually having been filmed in 1992. The smart suits that the band members wear also matches this time period, as does the simple stage design. Of course, these aspects - along with the smiles on the members' faces - are not at all familiar to the band, as they do not match the 1990s time period or grunge rock genre of Nirvana. In terms of sound, the band plays a slow yet heavy tune that completely contradicts the older and more peaceful style of the visuals. Occasionally, the visuals change to show the band members wearing dresses while acting rebelliously by flailing their instruments around the room, and destroying the stage design. These scenes appear to show the band's true performance nature, breaking free from the contradiction of the music.

Most similar to music itself, it has become quite clear that there are also multiple genres of music videos. Goodwin believed there to be five specific categories overall: stadium performance, studio performance, location, narrative, and conceptual/experimental.
Stadium performance music videos are based only, or mostly, on the artist performing their song onstage, which may be in front of a fake audience also shown within the video. Overall, although the music played within these types of videos often have specific meanings, the videos themselves are not designed to visually reflect such meanings. Stadium performance music videos are mainly used to present the talent clearly, so that a strong, visual connection is built between the artist and the audience. By including a fake audience within the video, the real viewers can more easily image themselves watching the artist perform live, which may temp them to purchase concert tickets. A notable example of a stadium performance music video is that of Bon Jovi's You Give Love a Bad Name. In this case, the video consists of nothing but scenes of the band pretending to play the original recording of the song onstage, while a fake audience cheers for them. Many shots taken close to the members' faces as they look into the camera, are shown, in order to give the impression that they are aware of the viewers' presence, resulting in a stronger connection between the two groups of people.
Studio performance music videos capture the artist performing their song in a professional recording studio, or at least pretending to do so in synchronisation with the audio. Generally, these types of videos are created to promote songs by underappreciated artists who either do not have sufficient income to pay for other types, or wish to present themselves and their music as true as possible for their audience, in order to avoid being seen as artificial and fabricated. One particularly obvious example of a studio performance music video is the one for Joe Bonamassa's Dislocated Boy. Within the video, Joe is seen in a recording studio, singing and playing an electric guitar while a few backing performers play other instruments to the tune of the song. Although there is no proper way of determining whether or not the video captures the actual recording of the song, it is highly unlikely due to the fact that almost all song recordings are not one continuous take, as the song will often be recorded multiple times, before professional sound editing is used to piece together the best parts in order to produce one full-length song. Despite still technically being fake in terms of performance, the main appeal of this type of video is that is still manages to add a dramatic sense of realism to both the music and the artist: a benefit that many listeners may greatly prefer over those created by other types of music videos.
Location music videos revolve around the concept of presenting an outside area in the visuals, whether it be natural, such as a mountain, or man-made, like a city street. Of course, the locations featured are often named in the song lyrics, and usually resonate strongly with the artists, evoking certain memories and emotions. An iconic example of a location music video is the one for Strawberry Fields Forever by The Beatles. Throughout the video, the band members are depicted standing by a tree in a wide field, at times of both day and night. The silly, frolicsome skipping and running of the members expresses the concept of childhood and youth, since Strawberry Fields is in fact an orphanage that was prominent in band member John Lennon's childhood. The Salvation Army, which ran the orphanage, had a band that would play at the Calderstones Park garden party every summer, right next door to the orphanage. The young John, having played in the gardens of the area with his childhood friends, would beg his aunt to go to the party every year as soon as he heard the band playing.
Narrative music videos attempt to tell stories that are either featured in the lyrics of the song, or suggested by the lyrics and dramatised by the visuals. Certain music videos within this genre are sometimes labelled as short films, since they usually include actors, props, and set designs similar to ones featured in cinema. Due to the extensive amounts of technical equipment, video editing software, actors, filming locations, and other requirements, narrative music videos are often very expensive type for record labels to produce. One clear example of a music video that conveys its message through a visual story is that of Knights of Cydonia by Muse. Overall, the video combines the western, martial arts, and science fiction film genres to present its narrative, depicting a heroic cowboy attempting to obtain a piece of technology, before losing a fight against the antagonist who casts him out from civilisation, to which he eventually responds by remerging as a stronger figure to rescue a damsel in distress, and defeat his nemesis. In terms of the western genre, the video is set in a town during the time of the American Old West, whereas the martial arts genre is present in both the protagonist and antagonist's fighting moves, which seem to parody the moves of characters portrayed by Bruce Lee. Differently, the science fiction genre can be seen through the character of a robot, firing of lasers from guns, and presence of both modern and future technology. In my eyes, the song's meaning is about convincing individuals to make their own personal decisions in life, and 'fight for' their 'rights'. The inclusion of technology appears to illustrate how such medium can be used to spread messages of rebellion, resulting in true freedom from an unfair and oppressive system within society.
Conceptual/experimental music videos play on the idea of using visuals different from those seen within traditional videos. They are often created to be unique and memorable to the viewers, as they stand out by taking advantage of visual concepts that can be considered oddly unfamiliar, thereby making the video itself appear special and distinctive. These types of videos are usually labelled as being experimental, due to the fact that the artist/s behind the work may be preforming an experiment based on the viewers' tastes, as they are supposedly seeing rare and unconventional uses of visuals unlike any others. A perfect example of such a video is the one for Marilyn Manson's Dope Hat, which combines a childish, whimsical appearance with a dark and mysterious one. It uses intertextuality by parodying a disturbing scene from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971), in which the main characters are subjected to a wave of frightening imagery when riding through a tunnel when they are seated on a boat sailing on a river of chocolate. The song meaning, in my opinion, is about a performer who attempts to keep his inner pain hidden from the public eye, whilst continuing to entertain people who do not care for his mental wellbeing. The character is required to turn that which is 'tragic' into 'magic', all in order to continue making a living. However, his madness seems to begin seeping into his work, scaring children instead of entertaining them, which appears to also be the case in the film scene at hand, providing Manson with a perfectly well-known example to base his song around.

Artist close-ups are often present within music videos - especially those for songs that are part of world-renowned music genres, such as pop, rock, metal, and hip hop. In many cases, the demands of the record label will include the need for many close-ups of the performance artist, often resulting in them developing motifs that recur across their work. By visually presenting themselves in a clear manner, artists are able connect with and relate more to their (often young) supporters, as opposed to not doing so. For instance, Sam's Smith music video for his song Stay With Me is a popular example, due to containing many long shots of the artist's face and hair presented clearly in soft lighting. At the time, Sam Smith had his hair in the pompadour style, but with a quiff as the centrepiece, leaving his hairline quite exposed. This made his visual appearance rather iconic, enabling him to be recognised more easily, as well as distinctively relate to his supporters.
In some ways, artist close-ups are associated with voyeurism, since it can be argued that many artists of both sexes often use their visual appearance within music videos to appeal to the opposite sex. Through the exposure of skin and use of provocative camera angles, a wide range of music videos attempt to sexualise the artist so that their supporters will fantasise over them, becoming all the more addicted to their work. One example of many is the music video for Worth It by Fifth Harmony, featuring Kid Ink. The video consists of all five women of the girl group dressed in business-esque attire that is as professional as it is revealing. Taking place in an office building, they are seen as CEOs and managers, dancing in front of male employees in a sexual and attractive manner, whilst the camera is often positioned to be rather revealing for the women. Presenting many feminist attributes, it shows women working and succeeding in a supposedly 'male-dominated' world of business, while worded statements such as 'women in power', 'feminism is sexy', and 'glass ceiling' flash onscreen. From this, it becomes apparent that the song is written from the perspective of women telling men that they are better than they may be perceived by claiming that are 'worth it'. Kid Ink is also featured in the video, sat on a sofa alongside an attractive woman on either side of him. The close-ups of him show the women to be lusting over him, whilst the fast cuts between his face and those of the members of Fifth Harmony, present them all as enchantingly tempting. Conclusively, the close-ups of this music video serve the purpose of appealing to both sexes. Many men can be pleased by the sexual visuals, whereas many women can feel inspired by the group's supposed reputation of empowerment over men.

Star iconography is another technique that Goodwin recognised within music videos. He wrote that many artists have a trend of repeating certain actions and/or dressing in certain ways, in order to establish 'trademark' movements and appearances, thereby making their image recognisable, which leads to their work becoming more popular due to being associated with simpler concepts that can be presented visually to individuals. Hundreds of examples of star iconography exist, including the black and white face paint of KISS members, Queen's Brian May's 'Red Special' electric guitar, Amy Winehouse's beehive hairstyle, the fictional zombie-like character of Eddie used to promote Iron Maiden, Elvis Presley's 'gyrating hips' and 'leg shake' dance moves, 'guitar spasms' and school uniform costumes of AC/DC's Angus Young, Michael Jackson's multiple dance moves and singular glove, the 'Union Jack' dress worn by Geri Halliwell of the Spice Girls, Deadmau5's mask, and The Who's Pete Townshend's 'windmill strum' guitar-playing move.
Despite star iconography enabling most artists to be visually recognised, others may instead create multiple appearances for themselves, as they decide to evolve over time by continuously changing their visual personas in order to experiment with other concepts, as well as maintain the interest of their supporters. One of the most common examples of an artist who constantly reinvented themselves in terms of appearance and song meanings was David Bowie. Throughout his life, Bowie changed his persona multiple times, beginning with the simple Davy Jones, and finishing with The Blind Prophet. In between, Bowie became a number of different characters, including Ziggy Stardust, Major Tom, Aladdin Sane, The Thin White Duke, and Halloween Jack. He also starred as iconic characters in many films, such as The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976), The Snowman (1982), The Hunger (1983), Labyrinth (1986), The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), and The Prestige (2006). Heavily inspired by David Bowie, Marilyn Manson is another artist who has changed his visual appearance and song concepts over time, with his third studio album Mechanical Animals, released in 1998, serving as a tribute to Bowie. In addition, artists such as Elton John, Freddy Mercury of Queen, the members of The Beatles, Britney Spears, and Katy Perry are partly famous for significantly altering their appearances as time has progressed.
A rather interesting case of star iconography is that of Sia. In person, Sia wears a wig in the style of a faux bob that covers most of her face, including her eyes. However, as she does not appear herself in most of her music videos, they instead consist of different people donning similar wigs. This unique case of star iconography presents that of Sia as something that can be copied by any person on a universal scale, enabling her to connect with a larger audience.
Logos are also a form of star iconography, as they help promote artists through simple icons that may not even show the name of said artist. Examples include the 'tongue and lip' logo of The Rolling Stones, the 'TS' logo of Twisted Sister, the 'smiley face' logo of Nirvana, and the 'love symbol' of Prince, which even gave birth to a similarly shaped electric guitar that he would perform with.

Intertextuality, in terms of music videos, is a technique in which the video makes references to another media text. The link between the two pieces of work can be found through the music video's instrumental sound, lyrics, and visuals. This technique is generally used to engage the audience further, as they may be a supporter of what the music video is referencing, and might even feel gratification if they recognise the link. A simple example of intertextuality is the music video for Madonna's Material Girl, as it bears a striking resemblance in terms of setting, clothing, choreography, and song meaning, to Marilyn Monroe's Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend performance in the 1953 film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Likewise, Iggy Azalea's music video for Fancy, featuring Charli XCX, is a direct reference to the 1995 film Clueless, since the school setting is similar in each, and Iggy wears a yellow, chequered blazer and skirt almost identical to the iconic attire of the character of Cher Horowitz in the film.
The music video for Movies by Alien Ant Farm is a major example of intertextuality, as it makes multiple direct references to certain 'movies', hence the song name. The video presents a crowded cinema screen room, with the band members sitting on the front row of seats. Once an advertisement for hot dogs begins to play, the members jump through the screen before performing the song. Throughout the video, the clothing and background of the band changes to reference multiple famous films, including Ghostbusters (1984), Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971), The Karate Kid (1984), and Edward Scissorhands (1990), after which all of the audience members join the band by also jumping through the screen.
Blink-182's music video for All the Small Things is a rather well-known example of a set of visuals referencing other personas in music. In this case, the music video aims to ridicule American boy bands of the 90s, such as Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, 98 Degrees, and New Kids on the Block. Through their simple clothing, smiling faces, and expressive dance moves, the members of Blink-182 present such boy bands as all the same. In particular, the members attempt to show how they believe that such bands focus too much on appealing sexually to the opposite gender, and do not write songs efficiently, due to the constantly lazy repeat of 'na-na'.
It is important to remember that while parody artists exist, some of them are considered legitimate artists that aim amuse people, as well as add new perspectives to already-existing songs. Perhaps the most famous parody artist is 'Weird Al' Yankovic, who has produced many parody songs based off music by a wide variety of artists including Queen, Dire Straits, Nirvana, Backstreet Boys, Joan Jett & the Blackhearts, Lorde, Miley Cyrus, Lady Gaga, Madonna, Coolio, and Michael Jackson. Due to being a parody artist, 'Weird Al' takes songs performed by other artists, but alters them by changing all the lyrics in order to completely shift the tone and message of the song, usually always for comedic effect. Depending on the new lyrics, the music video that is produced from the parody is either very similar to that of the original, or completely different. For instance, the music video for his song Eat It, which parodies Michael Jackson's song Beat It, features an alleyway, relatively empty bar, and apartment room almost identical to what it seen in the original, along with characters who look very similar in both versions. Contrarily, the music video for the parody song Like a Surgeon, which parodies Madonna's song Like a Virgin, is set in an operating theatre, whereas the original is set in a palatial building and on the canals of Venice. Over many years, most of 'Weird Al' Yankovic's parodies have been approved and thoroughly enjoyed by the original artists, portraying him as a genuine artist even to those who were not avid supporters to begin with.

Laura Mulvey's Theory of the Male Gaze

In feminist theory, the male gaze is the act of depicting women and the world, in the visual arts and in literature, from a masculine, heterosexual perspective that presents and represents women as sexual objects for the pleasure of the male viewer. In the visual and aesthetic presentations of narrative cinema, the male gaze has three perspectives: that of the man behind the camera, that of the male characters within the film's cinematic representations; and that of the spectator gazing at the image.
The film critic Laura Mulvey coined the term 'male gaze', which is conceptually contrasted with and opposed by the female gaze. As a way of seeing women and the world, the psychology of the male gaze is comparable to the psychology of scopophilia, the pleasure of looking; thus, the terms scopophilia and scoptophilia identify both the aesthetic pleasures and the sexual pleasures derived from looking at someone or something.
One of Mulvey’s examples used to demonstrate her theory of the male gaze is the first appearance of American actress, Marilyn Monroe in the 1954 film, The River of No Return. During the scene, Monroe’s character of Kay Weston is subject to the male gaze in a way that treats her like an ornamental object. Through a sexualised outfit and the lounging position that she assumes, she becomes an object to be viewed, both by the audience of the film and the predominantly male audience within the room of the scene.

Two forms of the male gaze are based upon the Freudian concept of scopophilia: the 'pleasure that is linked to sexual attraction and [the] scopophilic pleasure that is linked to narcissistic identification', which show how women have been forced to view the cinema from the perspectives of the male gaze. In such cinematic representations, the male gaze denies the female's agency and human identity, thus dehumanising the woman, from person to object, to be considered only for her beauty, physique, and sex appeal, as defined in the male sexual fantasy of narrative cinema.


Two types of spectatorship occur whilst viewing a film, wherein the viewer either unconsciously or consciously engages in the typical, ascribed societal roles of men and women. In relation to phallocentrism (the ideology that the phallus, or male sexual organ, is the central element in the organisation of the social world), a film can be viewed from the perspectives of 'three different looks'. The first look is that of the camera, which records the events of the film; whereas the second look describes the nearly voyeuristic act of the audience as they view the film proper; and the third look is that of the characters who interact with one another throughout the filmed story. The perspective common to the three types of look is the idea that looking generally is perceived as the active role of the male, while being looked-at generally is perceived as the passive role of the female. Therefore, based upon that patriarchal construction, the cinema presents and represents women as objects of desire, wherein women characters have an 'appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact'. Therefore, the actress is never meant to represent a decisive female character whose actions directly affect the outcome of the plot or impel the events of the filmed story, but, instead, exists within the film to visually support the actor, portraying the male protagonist, by 'bearing the burden of sexual objectification'.
A woman being the passive object of the male gaze is the link to scopophilia, to the aesthetic pleasure derived from looking at someone as an object of beauty. As an expression of sexuality, scopophilia refers to the pleasure (sensual and sexual) derived from fulfilling sexual fetishes by viewing material such as pornography. There are two categories of pleasurable viewing: voyeurism, wherein the viewer's pleasure is in looking at another person from a distance, and he or she projects fantasies, usually sexual, onto the gazed upon person; and narcissism, wherein the viewer's pleasure is in self-recognition when viewing the image of another person. Therefore, it is believed that in order to enjoy a film as a woman, or as a person of any gender other than the male gender, women must learn to identify with the male protagonist and assume his perspective that is the male gaze.

The female gaze is conceptually equal to the male gaze; that is, when women objectify people, they view said individuals, and themselves, from the perspective of a man. The male gaze is considered a manifestation of unequal social power, between the gazing man and the gazed-upon woman; and is also seen as a conscious or subconscious social effort to develop gender inequality in service to a patriarchal sexual order. From either perspective, a woman who welcomes the sexual objectification of the male gaze might be perceived as conforming to social norms established for the benefit of men, thereby reinforcing the objectifying power of the male gaze upon woman; or, she might be perceived as an exhibitionist woman taking social advantage of the sexual objectification inherent to the male gaze, in order to manipulate the sexist norms of the patriarchy to her personal benefit.
Mulvey said that the female gaze is analogous to the male gaze, because 'the male figure cannot bear the burden of sexual objectification. Man is reluctant to gaze at his exhibitionist like'. In describing the relationships among the characters of the 1966 novel, Wide Sargasso Sea, by Jean Rhys, a writer known as Nalini Paul said that the when the character of Antoinette gazes at Rochester, and places a garland upon him, she makes him appear heroic, yet: 'Rochester does not feel comfortable with having this role enforced upon him; thus, he rejects it by removing the garland, and crushing the flowers'. It is believed that from the male perspective, a man possesses the gaze because he is a man, whereas a woman possesses the gaze only when she assumes the role of a man, and thus possesses the male gaze when she objectifies other people, by gazing at them as would a man.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_gaze





Most films that do not serve the main purpose of being distinctively erotic, such as pornographies, do not necessarily consist of scenes that can be considered supportive of the male gaze, all throughout the runtime. They will often have such scenes scattered around, so as to not appear in direct favour of sexual objectification of women. However, certain films may have its main female characters seen rather scantily clad in the majority of scenes. Many superhero films, in particular, have been accused of using the concept of the male gaze to their advantage. Examples include The Return of Swamp Thing (1989), Barb Wire (1996), Elektra (2005), X-Men: First Class (2011), and Suicide Squad (2016). In this case, I shall be analysing a scene from French director, Pitof's Catwoman (2004), as the titular character is often dressed in a very revealing costume. In addition, Halle Berry - the American actress who portrayed the character - has played multiple roles that can be considered deliberately appealing to male audiences. Such roles include Ginger Knowles in Swordfish (2001), Leticia Musgrove in Monster's Ball (2001), and Giacinta 'Jinx' Johnson in Die Another Day (2002).

In Catwoman, after being drowned and flushed out of a conduit pipe, artist and graphics designer Patience Philips is mysteriously revived by an Egyptian Mau cat, resulting in her developing cat-like abilities. Patience uses these to her advantage to become a vigilante, living as both a hero and a thief. After she steals a mask from a jewellery store that was being broken into, she fashions herself a sexual, skin-tight, leather outfit to further highlight her new Catwoman persona. The scene that I shall analyse is the one in which Patience sashays along a rooftop, revealing herself and her new attire to the camera for the first time.

Within the scene, the camera pans slowly up and around Catwoman's figure, presenting her assets in great detail. Transitioning smoothly, the camera begins at the character's feet, and ends at face, as she gazes intensely just above the lens. In terms of Catwoman's appearance, toes, waist, belly, neck, and arms are completely exposed. Cleavage is also very clearly shown, and rips in the form of claw marks can even be seen in her trousers, revealing pieces of flesh on her knee pits and buttocks. Her light-brown skin seems to be covered in some sort of beauty product, as it shines unnaturally. She compliments her look with a heavy layer of red, glossy lipstick on her lips. Ultimately, it is very easy to see why many believe that this scene appeals to the male gaze.

The camera's smooth movement disguises the fact that it is unnatural. In reality, one would not be able to view another in such a way without consequences, unless the two have a personal connection that they both consent to sharing. The viewer is able to view the character in a sexual manner because they are simply watching a film, and therefore, will not suffer at all for doing so. The fact that Catwoman only exists within the world of fiction - and is not written to break the forth wall - provides a layer of safety for the viewer to view her in the way that they see fit. Additionally, the viewer will know that the actress, Halle Berry, chose to portray the character, and most likely knew beforehand how a large majority of people would picture her onscreen.

An additional piece of evidence to suggest that the film scene is in support of the male gaze, is that only women seem to be presented in such a way. In other words, very little people of the opposite sex have been dressed in such sexual attire, whilst being filmed to show most body parts in full detail. For example, one of the only other superhero characters to rival Catwoman in terms of performance, is Batman. However, no obvious depiction of the 'World's Greatest Detective' can be seen to deliberately fulfil sexual appeals of audience members. Batman is almost always fully clothed from head to toe, with the only body parts showing being his eyes and mouth. Indeed, his outfit, due to being skin-tight, his large muscles are greatly pronounced, but this is much tamer compared to how Catwoman is presented.

If one were to argue against the idea of Catwoman serving the purpose of deliberately appealing to male audience members, one may compare to film to the comics - created and published by DC Comics, Inc. - that the character originated from. In many editions, Catwoman was sexualised through both appearance and actions. Therefore, one could argue that whoever proposed the idea for her to be presented in such a way within the film, was only attempting to make the project stay as true as possible to the original work. However, this can be countered with the fact that the story that the film tells is completely different to any found in the comics. For instance, the character actually gains superpowers in the film, despite being completely human - just like Batman - in the comics. Thus, what can be asked is why such drastic changes were made in terms of story, but the character's sexual appearance and personality were kept the same.

Jacques Lacan's Theory of the Mirror Stage

The mirror stage is a concept in the psychoanalytic theory of French psychoanalyst, Jacques Lacan. It is based on the belief that infants recognise themselves in a mirror or other symbolic contraption which induces apperception (the turning of oneself into an object that can be viewed by the child from outside themselves) from the age of about six months.
Initially, Lacan proposed that the mirror stage was part of an infant's development from 6 to 18 months, as outlined at the Fourteenth International Psychoanalytical Congress at Marienbad in 1936. By the early 1950s, Lacan's concept of the mirror stage had evolved, as he no longer considered the mirror stage as a moment in the life of the infant, but as representing a permanent structure of subjectivity, or as the paradigm of 'Imaginary order'. This evolution in Lacan's thinking becomes clear in his later essay titled 'The Subversion of the Subject and the Dialectic of Desire'.

The child's initiation into what Lacan would call the 'mirror stage' entails a 'libidinal dynamism' caused by the young child's identification with his own image and creation of what Lacan terms the 'Ideal-I' or 'Ideal ego'. This reflexivity inherent in fantasy is apparent in the mirror stage, since to recognise oneself as 'I' is like recognising oneself as other ('that person over there is me'); this act is thus fundamentally self-alienating. Indeed, for this reason, feelings towards the image are mixed, caught between hatred ('I hate that version of myself because it is so much better than me') and love ('I want to be like that image').

As the mirror stage concept continues to develop over time, the stress falls less on its historical value and ever more on its structural value. 'Historical value' refers to the mental development of the child and 'structural value' to the libidinal relationship with the body image. In Lacan's fourth Seminar, La relation d'objet, he states that 'the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the conflicting nature of the dual relationship'. The dual relationship refers not only to the relation between the Ego and the body, which is always characterised by illusions of similarity and reciprocity, but also to the relation between the Imaginary and the Real. The visual identity given from the mirror supplies imaginary 'wholeness' to the experience of a fragmentary real.

The mirror stage describes the formation of the Ego via the process of identification - the Ego being the result of identifying with one's own specular image. At six months, the baby still lacks coordination. However, Lacan hypothesised that the baby can recognise itself in the mirror before attaining control over its bodily movements. The child sees its image as a whole, but this contrasts with the lack of coordination of the body and leads the child to perceive a fragmented body. This contrast, Lacan hypothesised, is first felt by the infant as a rivalry with its own image, because the wholeness of the image threatens it with fragmentation; thus the mirror stage gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image. To resolve this aggressive tension, the subject identifies with the image. This primary identification with the counterpart is what forms the Ego. The moment of identification is to Lacan a moment of jubilation since it leads to an imaginary sense of mastery. Yet, the jubilation may also be accompanied by a depressive reaction, when the infant compares his own precarious sense of mastery with the omnipotence of the mother. This identification also involves the ideal ego, which functions as a promise of future wholeness sustaining the Ego in anticipation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_stage





The film that I shall be applying Lacan's mirror stage theory is Black Swan (2011), directed by Darren Aronofsky. Within the film, the audience is made to see through the eyes of the character of Nina Sayers, a twenty-eight year-old in a New York City ballet company, which is preparing to open its new season with Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake. With prima ballerina Beth MacIntyre being forced into retirement, artistic director Thomas Leroy announces that he is looking for a new dancer to portray the dual role of the innocent White Swan and the sensual Black Swan. Nina auditions for the role and gives a flawless performance as the White Swan, but fails to embody the Black Swan. The qualities of the Black Swan are much better embodied by the new arrival, Lily. Nina is overwhelmed by a feeling of immense pressure when she finds herself competing for the part, causing her to lose her tenuous grip on reality and descend into a nightmare.

In terms of the theory of the mirror stage, whilst Black Swan does not begin with the protagonist as a child - which is the usual age for the stage to take place - it does begin with Nina in a childlike state. She has not yet become a woman, nor has she formed an identity apart from her mother. Thus, she is kept from being a true individual. A prime example of this is Nina's bedroom being decorated with wallpaper containing iconic visual representations of butterflies, ceramic statues, stuffed animal toys, and an overabundance of pink. To most people, the bedroom looks like it belongs to a small child, rather than a twenty-eight year-old woman. Nina's mother also dotes on and smothers her as if she were still an infant, calling her 'sweet girl', and even going so far as to undress her, as if Nina is incapable of doing so herself. In addition, the name 'Nina' has a relation to the Spanish word 'Niña', which happens to translate to 'little girl'. Within the company that she dances for, Nina is not so much treated as a child, as she is invisible, being seen as just another dancer among many - reduced and stripped of identity.

Black Swan opens on Nina dreaming - an act that, for her, serves the same function as looking into a mirror. Nina is able to externalise her image of herself, and consider her desires for said image. She acts as a spectator, watching herself dance her most coveted role: the Swan Queen. This role would not only make her the prima ballerina of her ballet company - a distinct individualistic position rather than one lost in the chorus - but would also help her to create a persona apart from her mother. Nina would no longer be just some aspiring ballerina following in her mother's footsteps. She would have reached the pinnacle of her craft, surpassing her role as daughter into her role as woman. This is the indeed the journey that Nina takes throughout the film. After being chosen to play the role of the Swan Queen, Nina starts maturing both emotionally and sexually. She defies her mother, confronts her predecessor, decides to leave her home, and has her first satisfying sexual experience. By all accounts, Nina successfully grows up, passing through Lacan's mirror stage, because she manages to create an identity that is her own, separating herself from her mother, and distinguishing herself among her peers.

According to Lacan's mirror stage, Nina does not actually create her new identity in the conventional way. Instead of only recognising herself as a distinct individual, Nina keeps hold of her infantile White Swan persona, and also manifests an opposite identity to her own: the Black Swan: an amalgam of the traits that she both fears and yearns for. At first, Nina has difficulty giving full form to her Black Swan person, and so she projects it onto the women around her. However, as Nina matures, so does her alter ego, as her Black Swan begins to manifest itself more frequently and aggressively both outside of and within the mirror.

In many ways, Black Swan is as much a case study for Lacan's theory of the mirror stage, as it is for the mirror stage 'gone wrong'. It poses the question of what happens when a person cannot reconcile the identity that they want with the one that they have. For Nina, she is constantly warring between her White Swan persona and her doppelgänger, so much so that her body seems unable to handle the two different identities at once. Throughout the film, Nina pulls and scratches at her skin, as if something beneath the surface were trying to break free from her body. However, Nina only acts in such a way when she is reflecting with both identities, either in front of a mirror or in her dreams.

The resolution of Nina's internal conflict occurs during her official debut performance as the Swan Queen. As her light and dark identities fight, they shatter a mirror both literally and figuratively, for Nina attempts to destroy the reflected darkness of herself. However, the violent, immoral act of killing her doppelgänger taints Nina's White Swan persona, corrupting it and allowing her to become both white and black. Instead of simply shattering her mirror image, Nina breaks through it, turning into both of the women that she created in her mirror stage. By subsuming two opposing forces, and holding them within one physical body, Nina has fragmented herself, allowing her desire and actuality to push against each other, fighting for control. This duality of character gives Nina what is required to dance the role of the Swan Queen, but also destroys her body in the process, for she cannot harbour two women in one vessel. By this point, Nina has broken the mirror between her desire and reality, mixing black and white together, fragmenting the identities created in her mirror stage, all in order to fulfil her reflected desire.

A crucial turning point in the film occurs when Nina goes out to dinner with Lily, leading to Nina willingly drinking a vodka cranberry spiked with what appears to be MDMA, commonly known as ecstasy. Afterwards, the two women take place with many strangers on the dance floor, in a sequence designed to be as hypnotic as it is terrifying. With the pulsing lights and merging images of bodies, this undeniably sexual scene acts as a visual climax to the film. It represents a moment that Nina has of liberation from her restrictive White Swan persona, and embrace of the Black Swan's primal impulses. The Chemical Brothers’ delirious song Don't Think blares in the club as red and green lights flash on and off in a strobing effect. The red represents Nina's passion and desire for becoming the rebellious Black Swan, while the green represents her envy of Lily's ability to personify such a character. In nearly every frame of this sequence, hidden imagery is manipulated within the frame, such as an object or image that recalls themes within the film. The moon set piece from the play, the character of Rothbart from Swan Lake, and Nina as the Black Swan permeate the sequence.
Momentarily, the electronic dance music lets up, replaced by Clint Mansell’s atmospheric and tense nightmare lullaby (which is Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake played in reverse at a slower tempo), and Nina looks around. For one frame, Lily’s face is superimposed onto Nina’s face, just prior to Lily joining in and dancing with Nina. This represents Lily's rebellious attitude slowly corrupting Nina, as if they are becoming the same person. Soon after, the music begins again. The inclusion of a tonal interlude in the sequence, one that further establishes the nightmare, is indicative of the subjectivity of the film. Only she experiences this moment, even while other people are lost in the din of debauchery, and only she somewhat realises the nightmare that she is enduring, what with the plethora of doubles within the sequence itself. Her obsession with Lily continues to corrode what little sanity she has left.

In the following sequence, Nina brings Lily back to her apartment, before locking her overprotective mother out of her room. The two begin passionately kissing, leading to them lying on Nina's bed, almost soiling the pink innocence which had previously ruled over Nina’s life, and Lily performs cunnilingus on Nina. The film presents a shot of Lily arching her back in pleasure and then looking up at Nina, cutting to Nina looking up at Lily. However, the face that comes up is not Lily’s, but an amalgam of Lily and Nina. As Nina panics and attempts to back away, in the next frame, Lily’s face is suddenly back to normal. As Lily returns to performing oral sex, the tattoo on her back mutates and grows, looking down from the same angle that Nina would see it. The audience, and Nina, see every sinew in Lily’s back, almost in admiration. These perspective shots are inherent to understanding that, even in ecstasy, Nina still has no control.

What is interesting about these hedonistic sequences is that they are so subjective that it is revealed that neither actually happened to the extent that the audience sees them in the film. Nina may have gone clubbing, but the nightmare that she endures is not the same story that Lily remembers. In addition, according to Lily, she and Nina did not have sex together. Nina is so fixated on competition that she may have begun to desire the same thing that she hates: herself. If Lily is indeed a manifestation of herself, to some extent, and what she needs to be, this strange process of maturation necessitates that she develop a monomania with discovering herself. Earlier in the film, Thomas suggests that Nina must 'touch' herself in order to channel the carnal elements of the character that she will play. However, this is something that Nina has done before, due to being kept in a childlike state by her mother. Therefore, such an act is seen by Nina as a piece of self-introspection that she has never had to in the past, and thus, is uncomfortable with. By following Thomas's suggestion, and fantasising about having sex with Lily, Nina's vulnerable mind fights the idea that she is incapable of becoming a woman, further deranging her mind in the process.

Sigmund Freud's Theory of the Id, Ego and Superego

The id, ego, and super-ego are the three distinct, interacting agents in the psychic apparatus defined in Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche. These three agents are theoretical constructs that describe the activities and interactions of the mental life of a person. Developing at different stages of life, the agents play separate roles in personality, but work together to form a whole, and contribute to an individuals’ behaviour. While the id, ego, and superego are often referred to as structures, they are purely psychological, and do not exist physically in the brain.

Freud’s work was not based on empirical research, but on his observations and case studies of his patients and others. Due to this, his ideas are often viewed with skepticism. Nonetheless, Freud was an enormously prolific thinker, and his theories are still considered important. In fact, his concepts and theories are the very foundation of psychoanalysis: an approach to psychology that is still greatly studied today. Interestingly, Freud is still considered by many to be the father of psychiatry. (Journal Psyche)
Overall, Freud's personality theory was influenced by earlier ideas about the mind working at conscious and unconscious levels. Freud believed that early childhood experiences are filtered through the id, ego, and superego, and that it is the way in which an individual handles these experiences, both consciously and unconsciously, that shapes personality in adulthood. (Vinney, C)

The earliest part of the personality to emerge is the id. This part is present at birth, and runs on pure instinct, desire, and need. It is entirely unconscious and encompasses the most primitive part of the personality, including basic biological drives and reflexes.
The id is motivated by the pleasure principle, which wants to gratify all impulses immediately. If the id's needs are not met, it creates tension. However, because all desires cannot be fulfilled right away, such needs may be satisfied, at least temporarily, through primary process thinking in which the individual fantasises about what they desire.
Newborns’ behaviour is driven by the id - they are concerned only with meeting their needs. In addition, the id never grows up. Throughout life, it remains infantile, because, as an unconscious entity, it never considers reality. As a result, it remains illogical and selfish. At a later stage, the ego and the superego develop to keep the id in check.

The second part of the personality, the ego, arises from the id. Its job is to acknowledge and handle reality, ensuring that the id’s impulses are reigned in and expressed in ways that are socially acceptable.
The ego operates from the reality principle, which works to satisfy the id’s desires in the most reasonable and realistic ways. It may do so by delaying gratification, compromising, or anything else that will avoid the negative consequences of going against society’s norms and rules.
Such rational thinking is referred to as secondary process thinking. It is geared towards problem-solving and reality-testing, enabling the person to maintain self-control. However, just like the id, the ego is interested in seeking pleasure. The only difference is that the ego wants to do so in a realistic way. It is not interested in the concepts of right and wrong, but in how to maximise pleasure and minimise pain without facing consequence.
Operating at conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels, the ego's consideration of reality is conscious. However, it may also keep forbidden desires hidden by unconsciously repressing them. Much of the ego’s functioning is also preconscious, meaning that it happens below awareness but takes little effort to bring those thoughts into consciousness.
Freud initially used the term ego to reference one’s sense of self. Often, when the term is used in everyday conversation - such as when someone is said to have a 'big ego' - it is still used in this sense. Yet, the term ego in Freud’s theory of personality is no longer referring to the self-concept, but to functions like judgment, regulation, and control.

The superego is the final part of the personality, emerging between the ages of three and five - the phallic stage in Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. The superego is the moral compass of the personality, upholding a sense of right and wrong. These values are initially learned from one’s parents. However, the superego continues to grow over time, enabling children to adopt moral standards from other people that they admire, such as teachers and celebrity idols.
This agent consists of two components: the conscious and the ego ideal. The conscious is the part of the superego that forbids unacceptable behaviours, and punishes with feelings of guilt when the individual gives submits to their id's most insufferable desires. The ego ideal, or ideal self, includes the rules and standards of good behaviour that one should adhere to. If one is successful in doing so, it leads to feelings of pride. However, if the standards of the ego ideal are too high, the person may feel like a failure, and experience guilt.
Not only does the superego try to control the id and its impulses towards societal taboos, like sex and aggression, it also attempts to get the ego to go beyond realistic standards and aspire to moralistic ones. The superego works at both conscious and unconscious levels. People are often aware of their ideas of right and wrong, but sometimes these ideals impact people unconsciously.

The id, ego, and superego interact constantly. Ultimately, though, it is the ego that serves as the mediator between the id, the superego, and reality. The ego must determine how to meet the needs of the id, while upholding social reality and the moral standards of the superego.
A healthy personality is the result of a balance between the id, ego, and superego. A lack of balance leads to difficulties. If a person’s id dominates their personality, they may act on their impulses without considering the rules of society. This can cause them to live without the ability to control themselves, which can lead to legal troubles. If the superego dominates, the person can become rigidly moralistic, negatively judging anyone who does not meet their standards. Finally, if the ego becomes dominant, it can lead to an individual who is so tied to the rules and norms of society that they become inflexible, unable to deal with change, and incapable of coming to a personal concept of right and wrong.

Many critiques have been leveled at Freud’s theory of personality. For example, the idea that the id is the dominant component of personality is considered problematic, especially Freud’s emphasis on unconscious drives and reflexes, such as the sexual drive. This perspective is believed by some to minimise and oversimplify the intricacies of human nature.
Alfred Adler, a former student of Freud, developed his own approach, known as individual psychology. He believed feelings of inferiority and striving for significance to be the motivating forces of human life. Thus, he rejected Freud's emphasis on biological drives, primarily sexual desire, as the primary source of motivation. (Tanabe, R)
Additionally, Freud believed that the superego emerges in childhood because children fear harm and punishment. However, research has shown that children whose greatest fear is punishment only appear to develop morals, and that their real motivation is to avoid getting caught and prevent harm. Some say that a sense of morality actually develops when a child experiences love, and wants to keep it. To do so, they engage in behaviour that exemplifies their parents’ morals and, therefore, will gain their approval.
Despite these criticisms, Freud’s ideas about the id, the ego, and the superego have been, and continue to be, highly influential in the field of psychology.





Despite first impressions, a vast majority of films containing three or more characters are capable of having Freud's theory applied correctly to them in some manner. In order to provide evidence for this, I shall be applying the theory to three scenes from Shaun of the Dead (2004), as its presence is nowhere near as evident as it is films that appear to be deliberately constructed around it, such as Fight Club (1999) or The Dark Knight (2008). In some ways, even those who appreciate director Edgar Wright's level of detail in films, may see this film to be nothing more than a highly enjoyable, British horror comedy. However, the film uses a wide range of cinema techniques, including Freud's theory of the id, ego and superego.

The film is set in London, following the character of Shaun, an aimless electronics salesman who is disrespected by his colleagues, does not get along well with his stepfather, Philip, and is dumped by his girlfriend, Liz. However, his uneventful life is changed dramatically when a zombie apocalypse overwhelms London, forcing Shaun to single-handedly keep his family and friends as safe as possible from the hoards of the undead.
Directed by Edgar Wright in 2004, the film is considered by many to be the best comedy involving zombies, or in other cases, the best horror comedy of all time. It is classed as the first entry into the Three Flavours Cornetto Trilogy (or the Blood and Ice Cream Trilogy) of films, followed by Hot Fuzz (2007) and The World's End (2013).




Before analysing the first of three scenes from the film, it would be wise to explain the personalities of the three characters included, so that they are actually proven to be the components that they have been assigned as within the story.
Ed, the id, is a indolent, unkempt layabout whose only priorities are leisure, such as playing video games, and drinking in the local pub known as The Winchester, whilst Shaun and Pete go out to work in order to make a living. His disheveled appearance and ignorant attitude represent Shaun's youth, as Ed is constantly trying to convince his friend to unwind more often.
Shaun, the ego, is stuck in a position between his id and superego. One on hand, he wants to remain young, which he feels when spending time with Ed and his mother; whilst one the other hand, he wants to please his girlfriend Liz by acting as a functioning member of society, which he looks to Pete as an inspiration, and Philip as a setter of rules and regulations. Throughout the film, Shaun is constantly conflicted between what the other two agents want for him.
Pete, the superego, respects Shaun in some ways, as he knows that Shaun is capable of acting maturely, and making something of his life when he puts his mind to it. The superego also knows when Shaun has followed the id for too long at a time, and so is there to pull Shaun back in order to stop him from becoming exactly like Ed.

The first scene reliable enough to be studied would be the one of Shaun and Ed listening to electro music at four in the morning, before Pete confronts them both angrily, for he is trying to sleep. This piece of the story takes place after Liz breaks up with Shaun, and so he, along with Ed, visit The Winchester, and then return home late at night whilst drunk.
At the beginning of the scene, Shaun and Ed are filmed close together as they dance along to music playing from a vinyl record. The fact that there is little physical space between the two of them reinforces the strength of Ed's influence on Shaun. Afterwards, Pete storms in, grabs the vinyl record, and throws it out through a window. The act of Pete attempting to destroy the record demonstrates his want to silence the things that enable Shaun to relate to his id. In this case, Shaun claims the record is the second album that he ever bought, meaning that it serves as an item of irresponsible and irreplaceable youth, which Ed is best known for.

A very important aspect of this scene is the clothes that Shaun is wearing. Unlike Ed, Shaun is wearing a work uniform consisting of a white shirt, red tie, and name tag. This attire represents the morals and values of the superego, as it makes Shaun look like a man who acts professionally and takes his job seriously. However, Shaun is also wearing a baseball cap positioned with the peak facing backwards to the left. An identical hat can be seen on Ed's head, worn in exactly the same position. The reason for this is for a part of Shaun to reflect the persona of the id, as Ed wishes for his friend to stop caring about society, and live as if he were young once again. Most fully-grown men do not wear hats in such a way, and so the two are presented as teenagers. When worn together, the smart uniform and informal hat show that Shaun is being torn between his id and superego, as he attempts to please both of them equally.

Once Shaun complains about Pete's action of throwing out his record, Pete stands to face Shaun head-on. Meanwhile, Ed's face is hovering above his friend's right shoulder. The positions of the characters at this time are extremely important, as the superego is viewed by the ego directly, as if Shaun is looking up to Pete, who informs him of responsibilities as an adult. In the case of Ed, the id is stood beside his friend as a constant reminder that the desires and wants of the ego are always present, even if they are not being viewed directly at the time.
It is also important to know that Shaun, Ed and Pete all live together in the same house, creating the metaphor of them all being parts of the same mind. Shaun needs the two of them in order for him to live properly, as he always requires a balance of influence from the id and the superego. This way, he is able to enjoy leisure time as much as did when in his youth, as well as just about cope with making it through each day of work from start to finish.

After Pete throws a tantrum, Shaun apologies to him, demonstrating the ego's natural wish to please the superego. In order to explain his state, Shaun says 'We split up with Liz tonight'. The key word in this statement is the pronoun 'We', as it bonds both the ego and the id together as if they are the same person. Naturally, Shaun was in a relationship with Liz, which Ed obviously had no place in. Ed was not present when Liz separated herself from Shaun, and only revealed himself in order to make Shaun feel as though Liz was not meant for him anyway. Ed's words, along with the help of alcohol, indicate that the id wants the ego all to itself. Shaun's use of the pronoun 'we' make it seem that the id's main goal is becoming easier to obtain. However, the superego manages to push the id back, as Pete tells Shaun to sort his life out, and that Ed only holds him back. At the end of the scene, the superego, having finished its job, leaves. Straight after, the id, now characterised by a defeated look on its face, disappears of screen, and the ego pulls its baseball cap of its head, presenting the fact that the superego has won.





As with the first scene, the characters within the second should also have their personalities detailed beforehand, in order for them to be accurately linked to their assigned components of the id, ego and superego.
Barbara, Shaun's mother, fits the criteria of the id in the second scene. The id is always placing its own needs and desires before others, and while Barbara does not act in the traditional manner, she serves as a means to fulfil Shaun, the ego's needs. It is made quite clear that Barbara still does not fully see her son as a responsible adult, and so, in some ways, she treats him with unconditional love, as if he were still the same child that she raised years before. Examples of this include calling Shaun 'pickle' in a saccharine manner, cleaning a spot of 'red' off him, and not wanting to 'worry' her son by informing him that she was bitten by an infected person. By doing this, she constantly feeds the childlike half that dwells within Shaun, acting, along with Ed, as another hand holding him back from reaching his superego component any further.
Shaun is, of course, the ego once again, and so will not be explained in terms of personality, since such information can be found earlier within this essay.
Philip, Shaun's stepfather, is seen as the superego within this scene. Although Shaun does not necessarily look up to Philip as he does to Pete, Philip reveals to his stepson that what Shaun originally thought were acts of cruelty, were simple means for Shaun to stay strong after he lost his real father, and that Philip always loved and believed in Shaun to do well in life, claiming that he was only providing motivation. This explains that Philip simply wished for Shaun to be more responsible, painting Philip as an enforcer of rules that he believed were for the greater good in terms of his stepson's attitude towards life. Earlier in the film, Philip reminds Shaun to bring flowers for Barbara the next time that he comes to visit. In the scene analysed in the following paragraphs, Philip even states that he took some of Shaun's toys to the rubbish tip, which can be interpreted as Philip destroying a piece of Shaun's childish irresponsibility that he always wishes to keep with him.

The second scene consists of Shaun and Ed driving to Barbara and Philip's house in order to take Shaun's mother to The Winchester before eliminating the stepfather due to him being infected, and because of Shaun's attitude of distaste towards Philip. Ed remains seated in the car that they parked on the driveway, while Shaun is let into the house by his mother. However, Shaun's entrance is not actually shown, as after he trips over on the driveway, the camera cuts to a quick zoom of his finger pushing the doorbell, before the next frame immediately presents Barbara smiling at Shaun and greeting him warmly with 'Hello, pickle'. The fact that the Barbara is presented in an instant by showing unconditional love for her son through her greeting, followed by a hug and the act of cleaning a spot of red off Shaun's neck, demonstrates her immediate need to coddle her son, much to his satisfaction. In addition, afterwards, Barbara takes Shaun straight through the house to the kitchen, which represents her domestic persona of motherhood, before trying to ensure that Shaun will eat her food by making sandwiches even though he says that he is not hungry.
In contrast to Barbara's instant appearance, Philip is presented significantly slower as the camera follows Shaun carefully approaching his armchair from behind. Although part of Shaun's cautiousness is due to his need to kill his stepfather, the careful, enduring camera tracking of Shaun pictures Philip as a force that has frightened Shaun since they first met. Shaun sees Philip as too much of a threat to the id that is his mother, and so he feels the need to destroy the superego that is his stepfather in order to have the agent that he prefers overall to himself.

Stood behind Philip, Shaun raises the cricket bat that he is holding as a weapon, over his head. Ready to swing the bat heavily down onto to Philip's head, he quietly says 'I'm so sorry, Philip', indicating that Shaun does at least have some respect for his superego, even if he does not want to. Much to Shaun's surprise, Philip speaks, asking the simple question 'Why?', startling Shaun. Philip then asks 'What have you done now?', instantly assuming that Shaun has done something wrong, as Philip is constantly suspicious of Shaun misbehaving, as if he were still a schoolboy. Shaun then attempts to hide the cricket bat from Philip by holding it behind his back with both hands. This pose, along with Shaun's roguish response of 'Nothing' even visually presents Shaun as a schoolboy who is attempting to make themselves look innocent when in trouble with their parents. A few moments later, Barbara enters the room and tells Shaun that some of his toys are upstairs, to which Philip says that he disposed of them at the rubbish tip. Further presenting himself as childlike when with his mother, Shaun looks at Philip and moans 'Ah, what?', which shows that Shaun may result to whining when not getting his way due to his parents' decisions.

Following on from Shaun's childish remark, Barbara reveals to Philip that she has called a doctor to come to the house in order to examine his illness. The two partners then become engaged in a small argument. Philip declines the need for a doctor, stating that he feels perfectly fine, and that the situation happening outside is all being blown out of proportion by news reporters. On the other hand, Barbara claims that he should see a doctor 'just to be on the safe side', as she is clearly worried about him, demonstrating that she may somewhat serve as an id for her husband as well as her son, even if Philip refuses to accept it. This short quarrel is presented through a shot reverse shot technique by having the camera show Philip alone on the right-hand side of the screen while looking at the left (at Barbara), and then showing Barbara alone on the left-hand side of the screen while looking at the right (at Philip), before repeating the process. Occasionally, however, Shaun is shown for brief periods of time alone in the middle of the screen, directing his gaze from one character to the other, almost as if he is pondering the question of who to listen to. Once again, Shaun is presented as a small child - in this case, by being caught in between two parents arguing with each other, making the child feel as though they should take sides.





Once more, the characters within the third and final scene shall be explained in order to justify the Freudian components that they have been assigned. In this case, however, the only included character that has not been detailed is Shaun's girlfriend, Liz, since both Shaun and Ed's personalities of the ego and the id have been explored in the analysis of the first film scene.
Liz undertakes the role of Shaun's superego not only in the final scene, but mainly throughout the whole film. She places herself aside Ed in order to force Shaun to decide who he wants more in life, leading to her dumping him just before the first scene analysed, as she believed that he preferred to please his id over his superego. By wanting Shaun to herself most of the time, she represents a concept of responsibility and commitment, only wanting to be with Shaun if he stops acting childishly and inattentively by treating her with the love and respect that he has for her deep down, but struggles to present due to his constant need to fulfil the wishes of his id.

The third and final scene is of Shaun and Liz living together in his house, with an infected Ed being kept in the garden shed. It appears to be set some time after the zombie apocalypse, since at the end of the previous scene, Shaun and Liz are rescued from The Winchester by the military. In addition, the current scene begins with Liz switching through television channels which appear to show the world not only making light of the apocalypse through comical entertainment, but also using it as an advantage, due to 'the fact that the mobile deceased retained their primal instincts make them ideal recruitment for the service industry'. At this point, the television shows an infected worker returning supermarket trolleys to their huts, whilst being kept on a chain. This links back to the opening credits in which many people together are seen in public, tiredly repeating basic actions - such as checking their phones and walking - in sync with most individuals around them. The purpose of this is to represent the monotonous drone of life, as in some ways, these people were zombies to begin with, and are still not free from the chains of society even when undead. Overall, this shows that in terms of a national scale, nothing has truly changed in life.

After Liz switches the television off, Shaun walks in and sits down on the sofa next to her, before giving her a kiss on the cheek, indicating that they are indeed together as life partners. In terms of surroundings, the living room appears different as opposed to its original state. At first, it was messy and unkempt due to the lazy Ed, whilst consisting entirely of objects that can be associated with Shaun's desire to stay young and irresponsible. However, the current appearance is a slight mixture of both Shaun and Liz's preferences. While Liz has decorated the room with a cabinet, framed pictures, a house plant, sofa blankets, pillows and a tuffet, Shaun still has a certain music poster in its same place on the wall, and has kept the television in the exact same place. Furthermore, he is keeping an infected Ed chained in the garden shed, which is where he goes to play video games with his friend, before the credits role. Ultimately, this gives off the impression that Shaun has received the best of two worlds: that of his id and that of his superego. Since, he needs both to cope with life, he has finally found the perfect mix of the two, enabling him to act more responsibly, whilst still being able to retain certain aspects of his childhood.

Upon sitting down next to Liz, Shaun asks her 'What's the plan, then?', to which she responds with a list of activities that appeal to both of them. Afterwards, Liz says that she will 'get the kettle on' to make cups of tea, and Shaun asks 'Can I have two sugars, please?', before awaiting her approval when telling her that he 'might pop into the garden for a bit' to give Ed a quick visit. From this sequence, it seems apparent that Liz has almost undertaken the role of Shaun's mother through her actions of telling Shaun what to do for the day, making him tea, and allowing him to see Ed. Additionally, from the point in which Shaun enters the living room to sit down beside Liz, the camera slowly zooms in on the two of them, before only moving closer to Shaun once Liz leaves to make the tea. This cinematography is reminiscent to horror films, as the camera may linger whilst gently zooming to show the audience that nothing is quite what it seems. With the world moving on from the apocalypse as if nothing happened, it would appear that Shaun has actually not changed either. Throughout the whole film, it was evident that Shaun was the ego, childhood was his id, and responsibility was his superego. Due to what Shaun experienced during the apocalypse, such as killing Barbara, one may assume that he would follow his id much less afterwards. However, due to loosing both Pete and Philip, as well as holding onto Ed despite his infectious state, the film does not necessarily have a happy ending. In conclusion, the world does not change, and Shaun does not grow as a person, meaning that nothing has actually changed.





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Vinney, C. (2019) ThoughtCo "Freud's Id, Ego, and Superego Explained", Viewed on 9th December, https://www.thoughtco.com/id-ego-and-superego-4582342