Andrew Goodwin's Music Video Theory

Dancing in the Distraction Factory is a book written by Andrew Goodwin and published in 1992, described as combining textual analysis of music videos with a comprehensive understanding of music television as a cultural industry. Since the release of Goodwin’s work, he has been considered one of the first individuals to analyse music videos as an art form.
Although Goodwin’s book has been summarised in many different ways, most consist of six particular points made about music videos, all of which are interpreted similarly within each version. These aspects are the relationship between the lyrics and the visuals, the relationship between the music and the visuals, genre, artist close-ups, star iconography, and intertextuality.

The relationship between the lyrics and the visuals is a convention in which aspects of the visuals - such as themes, mise-en-scène, and events - illustrate, amplify, or contradict the song lyrics.
Illustration is the concept of using visuals that mirror the lyrics, in order to help portray the message of the song. A music video that uses this technique extensively is the one for Price Tag by Jessie J, featuring B.o.B. In the video, a fake tree with paper money attached to its branches can be seen, while the nouns ‘money’ and ‘price tag’ are sang, along with Jessie J touching her jewellery when using the word ‘bling’, and even onomatopoeia in the form of ‘cha-ching’. Along with many other examples, when Jessie J is stood next to a wooden sign with an arrow facing left and the other facing right, saying the words ‘left’ and ‘right’ forces the camera to move the corresponding way. Even parts of B.o.B’s rap is illustrated through the visuals, since when he says the word ‘cars’, a toy car appears in the size of a real one.
Amplification is similar to illustration, but instead of the visuals matching the lyrics exactly, in this case, the visuals are somewhat exaggerated to portray the song’s message in a wider proportion. The music video for Cyndi Lauper’s song Girls Just Want to Have Fun is a sufficient example of amplification. Just like most music videos that present the artist, Cyndi is lip-synching to the lyrics, creating a visual representation of the song’s original recording. However, after Cyndi sings ‘my mother says’, the words that follow (‘when you gonna live your life right?’) are lip-synched by a figure that appears to be her mother. Similarly, after the lyrics ‘my father yells’, the following words (‘what you gonna do with your life?’) appear to be spoken by a man who is supposedly her father, further illustrating the song’s message and realism. In addition to lip-synching, Cyndi and many other individuals dance to the tune throughout the video, which also helps to reinforce the song lyrics of girls wanting to 'have fun'.
Contradiction is the complete opposite of illustration, as it uses visuals that either completely ignore the song lyrics, or deliberately stand against the lyrics by presenting an antithesis. For instance, in Billy Idol’s music video for Dancing With Myself, when he is riding a lift to the roof of a skyscraper, he sings ‘there’s no one else in sight’, despite the visuals showing a mass of what appears to be zombies attempting to climb up the walls of the building on the outside. Furthermore, during the final chorus, when Billy is stood atop the skyscraper, the zombies reach the top and begin to dance with him, all while he sings ‘dancing with myself’, as if he is all alone. Although one may interpret the lyrics as Billy seeing himself alone as the only live creature dancing, the words sung still contradict the visuals to a large degree.

In terms of sound, the relationship between the music and the visuals is a convention similar to that of the relationship between the lyrics and the visuals. However, in this case, aspects of the visuals illustrate, amplify, or contradict the actual tune itself rather than lyrics.
Illustration is the notion of instruments being visually reflected, as the audience sees exactly where the sound is being created. Millions of music videos utilise this technique, since it is much easier to make complete use of than others. In addition, many people may consider other techniques to be fake, due to including visuals that paint a manufactured picture. One example of many videos that links music and visuals together through illustration, is the one for The House of the Rising Sun by The Animals. Although the sound played is not actually created by the instruments viewed onscreen, the audience is nevertheless lead to believe that what they see is what they hear, due to the band pretending to play the correct notes at the exact same time as those within the song. Within the video, one can see that neither of the two electric guitars, nor the keyboard, is plugged into any sort of amplifier, despite the notes that play in the actual music clearly sounding as if they were recorded when amplified. In order to make music sound as best as possible, it is required to be recorded using professional equipment designed for sound quality. Since the aim of any music video is to visually advertise the song itself, the band must stay true to the original recording.
Amplification, being similar to illustration, is the concept of the visuals reflecting the tune of the music, but portraying it in a way that exaggerates and increases the mental impact of the audio, usually in order to make it appear more powerful. A rather popular example of a music video that utilises visual amplification of the sound itself, is that of Arctic Monkey's Do I Wanna Know?. The video is entirely animated, featuring an illustrated sound wave that morphs into a wide variety of other imagery. Throughout the video, the sound wave moves in response to most notes played by the drums and lead electric guitar, as well as the majority of syllables within the words of the vocals. Once a sound has been played, the sound wave begins to contract into the form of a horizontal line, before vibrating outwards in time with each new sound. Later on in the video, multiple waves occasionally appear, before the final chorus results in a fast plethora of shifting imagery, moving into transformation in perfect synchronisation with the tune. This visually appealing video helps to add effect to many of the sounds heard throughout the song, resulting in a more powerful listening experience.
Contradiction, seen as the opposite of illustration, poses the idea of the visuals either overlooking the style of the music, or even challenging the style by presenting itself as a contrary. A music video that strongly fits this criteria is the one for In Bloom by Nirvana. The colourless and blurred camera quality makes the video seem as though it was filmed in the early 1960s, despite actually having been filmed in 1992. The smart suits that the band members wear also matches this time period, as does the simple stage design. Of course, these aspects - along with the smiles on the members' faces - are not at all familiar to the band, as they do not match the 1990s time period or grunge rock genre of Nirvana. In terms of sound, the band plays a slow yet heavy tune that completely contradicts the older and more peaceful style of the visuals. Occasionally, the visuals change to show the band members wearing dresses while acting rebelliously by flailing their instruments around the room, and destroying the stage design. These scenes appear to show the band's true performance nature, breaking free from the contradiction of the music.

Most similar to music itself, it has become quite clear that there are also multiple genres of music videos. Goodwin believed there to be five specific categories overall: stadium performance, studio performance, location, narrative, and conceptual/experimental.
Stadium performance music videos are based only, or mostly, on the artist performing their song onstage, which may be in front of a fake audience also shown within the video. Overall, although the music played within these types of videos often have specific meanings, the videos themselves are not designed to visually reflect such meanings. Stadium performance music videos are mainly used to present the talent clearly, so that a strong, visual connection is built between the artist and the audience. By including a fake audience within the video, the real viewers can more easily image themselves watching the artist perform live, which may temp them to purchase concert tickets. A notable example of a stadium performance music video is that of Bon Jovi's You Give Love a Bad Name. In this case, the video consists of nothing but scenes of the band pretending to play the original recording of the song onstage, while a fake audience cheers for them. Many shots taken close to the members' faces as they look into the camera, are shown, in order to give the impression that they are aware of the viewers' presence, resulting in a stronger connection between the two groups of people.
Studio performance music videos capture the artist performing their song in a professional recording studio, or at least pretending to do so in synchronisation with the audio. Generally, these types of videos are created to promote songs by underappreciated artists who either do not have sufficient income to pay for other types, or wish to present themselves and their music as true as possible for their audience, in order to avoid being seen as artificial and fabricated. One particularly obvious example of a studio performance music video is the one for Joe Bonamassa's Dislocated Boy. Within the video, Joe is seen in a recording studio, singing and playing an electric guitar while a few backing performers play other instruments to the tune of the song. Although there is no proper way of determining whether or not the video captures the actual recording of the song, it is highly unlikely due to the fact that almost all song recordings are not one continuous take, as the song will often be recorded multiple times, before professional sound editing is used to piece together the best parts in order to produce one full-length song. Despite still technically being fake in terms of performance, the main appeal of this type of video is that is still manages to add a dramatic sense of realism to both the music and the artist: a benefit that many listeners may greatly prefer over those created by other types of music videos.
Location music videos revolve around the concept of presenting an outside area in the visuals, whether it be natural, such as a mountain, or man-made, like a city street. Of course, the locations featured are often named in the song lyrics, and usually resonate strongly with the artists, evoking certain memories and emotions. An iconic example of a location music video is the one for Strawberry Fields Forever by The Beatles. Throughout the video, the band members are depicted standing by a tree in a wide field, at times of both day and night. The silly, frolicsome skipping and running of the members expresses the concept of childhood and youth, since Strawberry Fields is in fact an orphanage that was prominent in band member John Lennon's childhood. The Salvation Army, which ran the orphanage, had a band that would play at the Calderstones Park garden party every summer, right next door to the orphanage. The young John, having played in the gardens of the area with his childhood friends, would beg his aunt to go to the party every year as soon as he heard the band playing.
Narrative music videos attempt to tell stories that are either featured in the lyrics of the song, or suggested by the lyrics and dramatised by the visuals. Certain music videos within this genre are sometimes labelled as short films, since they usually include actors, props, and set designs similar to ones featured in cinema. Due to the extensive amounts of technical equipment, video editing software, actors, filming locations, and other requirements, narrative music videos are often very expensive type for record labels to produce. One clear example of a music video that conveys its message through a visual story is that of Knights of Cydonia by Muse. Overall, the video combines the western, martial arts, and science fiction film genres to present its narrative, depicting a heroic cowboy attempting to obtain a piece of technology, before losing a fight against the antagonist who casts him out from civilisation, to which he eventually responds by remerging as a stronger figure to rescue a damsel in distress, and defeat his nemesis. In terms of the western genre, the video is set in a town during the time of the American Old West, whereas the martial arts genre is present in both the protagonist and antagonist's fighting moves, which seem to parody the moves of characters portrayed by Bruce Lee. Differently, the science fiction genre can be seen through the character of a robot, firing of lasers from guns, and presence of both modern and future technology. In my eyes, the song's meaning is about convincing individuals to make their own personal decisions in life, and 'fight for' their 'rights'. The inclusion of technology appears to illustrate how such medium can be used to spread messages of rebellion, resulting in true freedom from an unfair and oppressive system within society.
Conceptual/experimental music videos play on the idea of using visuals different from those seen within traditional videos. They are often created to be unique and memorable to the viewers, as they stand out by taking advantage of visual concepts that can be considered oddly unfamiliar, thereby making the video itself appear special and distinctive. These types of videos are usually labelled as being experimental, due to the fact that the artist/s behind the work may be preforming an experiment based on the viewers' tastes, as they are supposedly seeing rare and unconventional uses of visuals unlike any others. A perfect example of such a video is the one for Marilyn Manson's Dope Hat, which combines a childish, whimsical appearance with a dark and mysterious one. It uses intertextuality by parodying a disturbing scene from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971), in which the main characters are subjected to a wave of frightening imagery when riding through a tunnel when they are seated on a boat sailing on a river of chocolate. The song meaning, in my opinion, is about a performer who attempts to keep his inner pain hidden from the public eye, whilst continuing to entertain people who do not care for his mental wellbeing. The character is required to turn that which is 'tragic' into 'magic', all in order to continue making a living. However, his madness seems to begin seeping into his work, scaring children instead of entertaining them, which appears to also be the case in the film scene at hand, providing Manson with a perfectly well-known example to base his song around.

Artist close-ups are often present within music videos - especially those for songs that are part of world-renowned music genres, such as pop, rock, metal, and hip hop. In many cases, the demands of the record label will include the need for many close-ups of the performance artist, often resulting in them developing motifs that recur across their work. By visually presenting themselves in a clear manner, artists are able connect with and relate more to their (often young) supporters, as opposed to not doing so. For instance, Sam's Smith music video for his song Stay With Me is a popular example, due to containing many long shots of the artist's face and hair presented clearly in soft lighting. At the time, Sam Smith had his hair in the pompadour style, but with a quiff as the centrepiece, leaving his hairline quite exposed. This made his visual appearance rather iconic, enabling him to be recognised more easily, as well as distinctively relate to his supporters.
In some ways, artist close-ups are associated with voyeurism, since it can be argued that many artists of both sexes often use their visual appearance within music videos to appeal to the opposite sex. Through the exposure of skin and use of provocative camera angles, a wide range of music videos attempt to sexualise the artist so that their supporters will fantasise over them, becoming all the more addicted to their work. One example of many is the music video for Worth It by Fifth Harmony, featuring Kid Ink. The video consists of all five women of the girl group dressed in business-esque attire that is as professional as it is revealing. Taking place in an office building, they are seen as CEOs and managers, dancing in front of male employees in a sexual and attractive manner, whilst the camera is often positioned to be rather revealing for the women. Presenting many feminist attributes, it shows women working and succeeding in a supposedly 'male-dominated' world of business, while worded statements such as 'women in power', 'feminism is sexy', and 'glass ceiling' flash onscreen. From this, it becomes apparent that the song is written from the perspective of women telling men that they are better than they may be perceived by claiming that are 'worth it'. Kid Ink is also featured in the video, sat on a sofa alongside an attractive woman on either side of him. The close-ups of him show the women to be lusting over him, whilst the fast cuts between his face and those of the members of Fifth Harmony, present them all as enchantingly tempting. Conclusively, the close-ups of this music video serve the purpose of appealing to both sexes. Many men can be pleased by the sexual visuals, whereas many women can feel inspired by the group's supposed reputation of empowerment over men.

Star iconography is another technique that Goodwin recognised within music videos. He wrote that many artists have a trend of repeating certain actions and/or dressing in certain ways, in order to establish 'trademark' movements and appearances, thereby making their image recognisable, which leads to their work becoming more popular due to being associated with simpler concepts that can be presented visually to individuals. Hundreds of examples of star iconography exist, including the black and white face paint of KISS members, Queen's Brian May's 'Red Special' electric guitar, Amy Winehouse's beehive hairstyle, the fictional zombie-like character of Eddie used to promote Iron Maiden, Elvis Presley's 'gyrating hips' and 'leg shake' dance moves, 'guitar spasms' and school uniform costumes of AC/DC's Angus Young, Michael Jackson's multiple dance moves and singular glove, the 'Union Jack' dress worn by Geri Halliwell of the Spice Girls, Deadmau5's mask, and The Who's Pete Townshend's 'windmill strum' guitar-playing move.
Despite star iconography enabling most artists to be visually recognised, others may instead create multiple appearances for themselves, as they decide to evolve over time by continuously changing their visual personas in order to experiment with other concepts, as well as maintain the interest of their supporters. One of the most common examples of an artist who constantly reinvented themselves in terms of appearance and song meanings was David Bowie. Throughout his life, Bowie changed his persona multiple times, beginning with the simple Davy Jones, and finishing with The Blind Prophet. In between, Bowie became a number of different characters, including Ziggy Stardust, Major Tom, Aladdin Sane, The Thin White Duke, and Halloween Jack. He also starred as iconic characters in many films, such as The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976), The Snowman (1982), The Hunger (1983), Labyrinth (1986), The Last Temptation of Christ (1988), and The Prestige (2006). Heavily inspired by David Bowie, Marilyn Manson is another artist who has changed his visual appearance and song concepts over time, with his third studio album Mechanical Animals, released in 1998, serving as a tribute to Bowie. In addition, artists such as Elton John, Freddy Mercury of Queen, the members of The Beatles, Britney Spears, and Katy Perry are partly famous for significantly altering their appearances as time has progressed.
A rather interesting case of star iconography is that of Sia. In person, Sia wears a wig in the style of a faux bob that covers most of her face, including her eyes. However, as she does not appear herself in most of her music videos, they instead consist of different people donning similar wigs. This unique case of star iconography presents that of Sia as something that can be copied by any person on a universal scale, enabling her to connect with a larger audience.
Logos are also a form of star iconography, as they help promote artists through simple icons that may not even show the name of said artist. Examples include the 'tongue and lip' logo of The Rolling Stones, the 'TS' logo of Twisted Sister, the 'smiley face' logo of Nirvana, and the 'love symbol' of Prince, which even gave birth to a similarly shaped electric guitar that he would perform with.

Intertextuality, in terms of music videos, is a technique in which the video makes references to another media text. The link between the two pieces of work can be found through the music video's instrumental sound, lyrics, and visuals. This technique is generally used to engage the audience further, as they may be a supporter of what the music video is referencing, and might even feel gratification if they recognise the link. A simple example of intertextuality is the music video for Madonna's Material Girl, as it bears a striking resemblance in terms of setting, clothing, choreography, and song meaning, to Marilyn Monroe's Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend performance in the 1953 film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Likewise, Iggy Azalea's music video for Fancy, featuring Charli XCX, is a direct reference to the 1995 film Clueless, since the school setting is similar in each, and Iggy wears a yellow, chequered blazer and skirt almost identical to the iconic attire of the character of Cher Horowitz in the film.
The music video for Movies by Alien Ant Farm is a major example of intertextuality, as it makes multiple direct references to certain 'movies', hence the song name. The video presents a crowded cinema screen room, with the band members sitting on the front row of seats. Once an advertisement for hot dogs begins to play, the members jump through the screen before performing the song. Throughout the video, the clothing and background of the band changes to reference multiple famous films, including Ghostbusters (1984), Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971), The Karate Kid (1984), and Edward Scissorhands (1990), after which all of the audience members join the band by also jumping through the screen.
Blink-182's music video for All the Small Things is a rather well-known example of a set of visuals referencing other personas in music. In this case, the music video aims to ridicule American boy bands of the 90s, such as Backstreet Boys, NSYNC, 98 Degrees, and New Kids on the Block. Through their simple clothing, smiling faces, and expressive dance moves, the members of Blink-182 present such boy bands as all the same. In particular, the members attempt to show how they believe that such bands focus too much on appealing sexually to the opposite gender, and do not write songs efficiently, due to the constantly lazy repeat of 'na-na'.
It is important to remember that while parody artists exist, some of them are considered legitimate artists that aim amuse people, as well as add new perspectives to already-existing songs. Perhaps the most famous parody artist is 'Weird Al' Yankovic, who has produced many parody songs based off music by a wide variety of artists including Queen, Dire Straits, Nirvana, Backstreet Boys, Joan Jett & the Blackhearts, Lorde, Miley Cyrus, Lady Gaga, Madonna, Coolio, and Michael Jackson. Due to being a parody artist, 'Weird Al' takes songs performed by other artists, but alters them by changing all the lyrics in order to completely shift the tone and message of the song, usually always for comedic effect. Depending on the new lyrics, the music video that is produced from the parody is either very similar to that of the original, or completely different. For instance, the music video for his song Eat It, which parodies Michael Jackson's song Beat It, features an alleyway, relatively empty bar, and apartment room almost identical to what it seen in the original, along with characters who look very similar in both versions. Contrarily, the music video for the parody song Like a Surgeon, which parodies Madonna's song Like a Virgin, is set in an operating theatre, whereas the original is set in a palatial building and on the canals of Venice. Over many years, most of 'Weird Al' Yankovic's parodies have been approved and thoroughly enjoyed by the original artists, portraying him as a genuine artist even to those who were not avid supporters to begin with.