The British New Wave was characterised by many of the same stylistic and thematic conventions as its inspiration: the French New Wave. Usually presented in greyscale colour schemes, these films had a spontaneous quality, often shot in a pseudo-documentary (or cinéma vérité) style on real locations and with real people rather than extras - apparently capturing life as it happened. Such films were often made with rather small budgets in comparison to the ones that came before, generally with the intent of appealing to mainstream audiences. Due to these low budgets, film equipment deemed the least expensive to purchase and operate were used to film the scenes and provide audio. In addition, most scenes would be filmed in one take, and the majority of mistakes would be kept in.
British New Wave (or Kitchen Sink Realism) is believed to have begun as a movement in the late 1950s before coming to an undefined end in the mid-1960s, meaning that it existed during the build-up and early climax of the era commonly labelled as the 'Swinging Sixties'. Presented in theatre, novels, television plays, and of course, films, the main protagonists of the genre usually could be described as 'angry young men' who were disillusioned with modern society. It used a style of social realism, which depicted the domestic situations of working class Britons, living in cramped rented accommodation and spending their leisure hours drinking in grimy pubs, to explore controversial social and political issues ranging from abortion to homelessness. The harsh, realistic style contrasted sharply with the escapism of the previous generation's so-called 'well-made plays'.
The films, plays and novels employing this style are often set in poorer industrial areas in the North of England, and use the accents and slang heard in those regions. In terms of films, some of the most widely known examples of British New Wave Cinema include Tiger Bay (1959), Look Back in Anger (1959), A Taste of Honey (1961), Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1961), A Kind of Loving (1962), The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962), The L-Shaped Room (1962), This Sporting Life (1963), Billy Liar (1963), Darling (1965), Alfie (1966), Georgy Girl (1966), and Kes (1969). Along with many others, these films defined the movement by raising sensitive issues such as murder, class, race, gender, sexual orientation, substance abuse, rebellious attitudes, theft, love affairs, promiscuity, abortion, and depravity. The conventions of the genre have continued into the 2000s, finding expression in many soap operas such as Coronation Street, Eastenders, Emmerdale, Hollyoaks, Holby City, Casualty, and Doctors.
For this essay, I shall be critically assessing the key factors surrounding three films that are part of the British New Wave era: A Taste of Honey (1961), The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962), and Alfie (1966). In addition to this, I shall also be assessing the impact of their reception, and the reasons behind how they were received by audiences.
A Taste of Honey (1961)
A Taste of Honey is a 1961 British film directed by Tony Richardson, and adapted from the play of the same name by Shelagh Delaney. The film follows the character of Jo, an awkward, shy, 17-year-old girl living with her promiscuous, alcoholic mother, Helen. Desperately longing to simply be loved, when her mother's latest 'romance' drives Jo out of their apartment, she spends the night with a black sailor known as Jimmie, on a brief shore leave. However, when Jo's mother abandons her to move in with her latest lover, Jo finds a job and a room for herself, before meeting Geoffrey, a shy and lonely homosexual, whom Jo allows to share her flat. When she discovers that she is pregnant with the sailor's child, Geoffrey, grateful for her friendship, looks after her, even offering marriage. Their brief taste of happiness is short-lived for Jo's fickle and domineering mother, who, her own romantic hopes dashed, appears on the scene, determined to drive the gentle Geoffrey from the flat and take over the care of her daughter, rearranging everything to suit herself.
The connection between Jo and Helen is not a typical loving relationship between mother and daughter. Instead, it is obvious that Helen constantly neglects Jo, and seems to care more about having a good time, and finding a new husband. She does not seem to fully realise how poorly she treats Jo, as she regularly responds jokingly to her daughter's comments. An example of this would be Helen saying 'I'm a cruel, wicked mother' in a sarcastic manner, after Jo says that her mother 'never cared much before' about her. It is also important to note that this comes after Helen happens to find impressive drawings that Jo has created. Helen is clearly surprised to see how skilled Jo is at art: 'Ooh, I didn't realise I'd got such a talented daughter'. This - combined with the fact that Helen only asks Jo about her future at this point - demonstrates just how distant the two are from each other, and that they do not communicate well. The two are almost like strangers to one another: 'I used to try and hold me mother's hands, but she always used to pull 'em away from me'.
Due to Jo's rather distorted view on love, she seeks acceptance and attention from other people. For example, she tries to be popular with the other girls at school, she has an underage affair with a sailor, and she befriends the misfit, Geoffrey. As life gets harder for Jo, and she discovers that she is pregnant, she goes as far as to say 'I hate love' to Geoffrey. Unfortunately, Jo starts to compare herself to her mother, and worries that she will make a bad job of motherhood. In one particular scene, Jo is watching a boy who appears to have Down's syndrome, and expresses negative views about his mother. Jo thinks that it is poor judgement to have children if the parent is not willing to care for them: 'A bit o' love, a bit o' lust, and there y'are. We don't ask for life. We have it thrust upon us'.
Geoffrey's personality and mannerisms make it obvious that he is homosexual, but words such as 'gay' or 'queer' are never mentioned in the film. At the time of the film's release, it was illegal for two people of the same sex to be in a relationship, meaning that Geoffrey's character was a risky and innovative element of the film.
The relationship between Jo and Geoffrey seems to be that of two misfits who come together in order to care for each other, as they do not have anyone closer to fulfil such needs. They grow attached to one another, especially in the case of Geoffrey's growing love for Jo: 'Id rather be dead than away from you'. Regardless of Geoffrey's sexual preferences, once the pair of them are living together, he cleans and renovates Jo's place, cooks meals, visits a prenatal clinic for advice, makes clothes for her unborn baby, sketches her, often goes out of his way to look for her, and even offers to marry her for the sake of the baby. The second-half of the film is supposed to demonstrate Jo's need of Geoffrey, but the reverse is true, as Geoffrey says 'Before I knew ya, I didn't care much whether I lived or died, y'know. But then, I met ya, and, well, being with ya's me life'.
The film’s final, affecting scene, capturing its atmosphere of emotional ambiguity, shows Jo lighting a sparkler on Bonfire Night, whilst the soundtrack features a children’s chorus singing a winsome British sailing song. This song was also played at the beginning of the film, after Jo and Helen had escaped the landlord of a grotty bedsit by climbing out of the apartment window, suitcases in hand, and hopping on a bus. Now, at the end of the film, the song reminds the audience that Jo is still very much the same lost child, but now with very different circumstances. The audience watches along with Jo, mesmerised, as the cold flame of the sparkler burns down.
Seen within the context of a very straight-laced Britain of the early 60s, Richardson’s film addresses the issues of interracial dating and sex, homosexuality and single-parent households with a fresh-feeling nonchalance, rather than the spectacle-adjusting 'social ills' approach of other films of the period. (Savage, 2007) Granted, PC-sensitive audiences of the 21st century may squirm in discomfort at a few scenes: Geoffrey’s effortless home-decoration treatment that he gives Jo’s shabby flat; or Jo and Jimmy’s conversation about his 'bongo-beating ancestors' in deepest Africa.
Due to its realistic style, the film is considered a kitchen-sink drama.
Evidence of the film's small budget would be Desmond Davis, the camera operator, commenting 'Shooting in black and white was a financial decision: colour was expensive. And the Eastman colour stock was slow and needed heavy lighting units, unlike black-and-white high-speed film, which was ideal for the poor lighting conditions we were often filming in'. (Watkins, 2018) However, many consider
A Taste of Honey to have great lyricism.
The film was opened out from the play, through cinematographer Walter Lassally's impressionistic use of industrial landscapes. The canals and backstreets of Salford take on a dreamy air as Jo tries to find herself and someone to care for her. Some of the imagery, such as Jimmy's ship going down the ship canal, or the match cut between a starry sky and a dance hall ceiling, is considered incredibly beautiful, creating a coming-of-age portrait which compares with the best such works in world cinema. (Wickham, n.d, b)
The film won multiple awards, and has since been considered one of the greatest British films ever produced. Tony Richardson, the director, won the 'Best British Film' award at the 1962 BAFTA Film Awards, whilst Dora Byran, who played the role of Helen, took home the 'Best British Actress Award', and Rita Tushingham won the 'Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles' award. In addition to this, she also won the 'Most Promising Newcomer - Female' award at the 1963 Golden Globes Awards, as well as the 'Best Actress' award at the 1962 Cannes Film Festival, where Murray Melvin, the actor of Geoffrey, received the 'Best Actor' award.
Indeed, the film remains a touchstone of Northern culture, since memorable lines such as 'I dreamt about you last night and I fell out of bed twice' reappeared in the early work of influential Manchester rock band, The Smiths.
The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962)
The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner is a 1962 British film directed by Tony Richardson, and adapted from the short story of the same name by Alan Sillitoe. The film follows the character of Colin Smith, a sullen, young man from a working class family. He, along with his friend Mike commit petty crimes. Colin does so in an effort to escape his unhappy family life. He has a difficult relationship with his mother, especially in that she seemed to be more interested in the insurance money from his father's death than with his father as a man and husband. This fact is further highlighted by her taking up with another man immediately following Mr. Smith's death. Colin also distrusts authority. He is sent to Ruxton Towers Reformatory after he is caught stealing money from a bakery. His stay there is initially a difficult one until its Governor notices that Colin has a natural ability in long distance running, which Colin states was all in an effort to run away from the police, who were often chasing him. The Governor believes that running may be Colin's salvation to a better life, both at Ruxton Towers, and after his release. Due to this, the Governor wishes to cultivate Colin's running ability so that he will race for the school in the inaugural track meet against a public school, which upon winning, will show the world that the Governor is able to turn these boys into functioning members of society. Colin does take up the challenge, as running offers him a sense of freedom. However, instead of pleasing the Governor, Colin uses his running to demonstrate what he considers his ultimate act of freedom, by allowing his opponent to win after stopping and remaining in place just a few yards away from the finish line, whilst sneering rebelliously. At the end, Colin is punished and ignored by the Governor. Nevertheless, he seems calm, even content with his loneliness, since he has refused to submit to authority.
The plot can be interpreted as either tragic or bathetic by ultimately projecting the protagonist as a working class rebel rather than an otherwise rehabilitated but conformist talent. During the period when Sillitoe wrote the book and screenplay, the sport of running was changing. 'The purity of running was taken away when Colin entered the race for his own and his institution's benefit - a commodity useful for his patrons' own promotion'. (Hutchings, 1987) Sillitoe rejects the commoditisation of running in his book and screenplay, believing instead a professional becomes commercialised and loses the clarity of thought that comes with running otherwise. This is why Colin chooses to forfeit the race. Literary critic Helen Small states that '…the weight of literary attention seems to be focused on a 'pre-professional era' - either written at that time or looking back at it for inspiration'. (Small, 2010) Her research stresses that Sillitoe was an author who believed in the unadulterated sport.
Running is also used as a metaphor to give Colin the ability to escape from the reality of his class level in society. The use of this sport enables Colin to escape from his life as a member of the working-class poor. Sillitoe and Richardson used running to give the character a chance to reflect upon his social status, and also to escape from the reality that the poor in Britain are faced with. Long-distance running gives the character an ability to freely escape from society without the pressures of a team, which may be found in other athletic stories.
Throughout the film, the audience is shown many scenes of Colin's rebellious attitude towards society, as he refuses to submit to its ways by acting as a functioning member. The most noticeable examples include his petty crimes of stealing a car, as well as money from a gambling machine and a bakery. However, his view of money is explored much further through his actions. After the father dies, the mother receives insurance of £500 from his workplace, and Colin suggests that they should 'burn it'. Later, the mother takes Colin and her other children on a shopping spree, which involves her purchasing many expensive items of the middle-class life that have eluded them. During this scene, Colin's irritated facial expressions reflect his disappointment towards his mother for taking advantage of her husband's death. Once back home, Mrs Smith forces her eldest son to take some of the money left over, which Colin refuses at first, before reluctantly accepting it only to leave the room, and burn it. However, what makes this most important is the fact that he does not have to think twice before destroying money that he has obtained legally, yet easily steals cash to spend on another trip to Skegness. This is a prime example of Colin's refusal to use money that was granted to him by society, strengthened by the fact that it is the result of the passing of someone who he cared for. By robbing the bakery, Colin shows that he has no respect for establishments that he has no connection with on a personal level, and can therefore steal from them in order to benefit himself and those that he does care for - in this case, Audrey - as he intends to eventually use the money to go back to Skegness with her.
When Colin first arrives at Ruxton Towers Reformatory, he reacts against the constraints of authority by not only failing to succumb to the Governor's control, but by attempting to challenge it. When asked what his name is, Colin only offers his surname, and deliberately does not follow with the noun 'sir' - unlike the previous boy who's name was asked for - as Colin knows that such a word shows respect, which he feels the Governor does not deserve. When corrected by the officer, Colin stubbornly and very obviously says the two words in the wrong order, which reflects his opinion of people in positions of authority.
Once congratulated on his running, Colin is recommended training for the long distance cross-country run. Later, in the workshop, two other inmates are discussing how Colin will be made the Governor's 'favourite' if he wins the race, to which he responds with 'I'm nobody's favourite'. He then explains how he will act later in the film by saying 'the best thing to do is be cunning and stay where you are. Y'see, I'm gonna let them think they've got me housetrained, but they never will, the bastards'. This enables the audience to see that Colin is planning to try to gain the Governor's approval as best as possible in order to gain 'the upper hand', before tricking him. Throughout the film, examples of Colin's fake respect towards the Governor are shown, such as handing him a rag to wipe his hands with, promising to do his best in the race, returning to the reformatory after being let outside to run without supervision, and even wishing the Governor a good morning whilst somewhat smiling. All this builds up to the climax of Colin stopping just before the race finish line. This reflects how many middle and higher class individuals saw working class youth as often feeling greatly satisfying when rebelling against their betters. In this case, the climax is most powerful to the audience, as the Governor has spent days trusting Colin, for him to only double-cross his 'better', and in front of hundreds of people.
The title of the film perhaps gives a hint that the sound of running feet on a hard ground will play a vital role in the film. This rhythmic, repetitive sound has a musical quality with its consistent and metaphorical use. Running is a strong metaphor in the film, often for avoiding problems which cascade into ever more issues. The sound of running can be seen to show the constant relentlessness of working class life with no stopping for, or even desire for, middle class tendencies. For example, one of the most effective uses of diegetic music comes from an advert for Rolls Royce cars. Colin is unhappy about this situation, and this advert, along with its music, shows the utter banality of the life that his class are deprived of. It has an even more powerful effect when, in the final montage of the race, the happy music from the advert with cries of 'Rolls Royce' are juxtaposed next to sounds linked to his father’s death. One of Claudia Gorbman’s main arguments is that 'Montage sequences often use non-diegetic music to bridge gaps of diegetic time', (Scovell, 2013), yet here, diegetic sound is deliberately stuck together, allowing the full chaos of Colin’s inner crisis to be viewable and audible.
The hymn 'Jerusalem' is recontextualised and chopped up into the score for a small orchestra, coming in specifically when Colin is forced to face authority, hardship, and the class divides of the reformatory. The boys are made to sing the hymn roughly halfway through the film. Before this, only the merest hint that the hymn is used makes its vague presence known, only familiar to people listening intently and with knowledge of the original music. 'Classical theory depends upon the assumption that meaning is contained in the visual image and that music either reinforces or alters what is already there', claims Kathryn Kalinak (Scovell, 2013), yet this score has a balance of classical leanings and musical meaning. When the boys finally sing, all of these moments are brought together, and it becomes clear that the melodies represent all that Colin despises and is fighting against.
Tom Courtaney, who acted the role of Colin Smith, was nominated for the 'Most Promising New Actor' award at the 1963 BAFTA Film Awards, whilst Tony Richardson, the director, was nominated for the 'Best Foreign Director' award at the 1967 Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists (Nastro d'Argento). In terms of awards, Tom Courtaney won the 'Best Actor' award at the 1963 Mar del Plata International Film Festival. (IMDb, a) In addition, the film put Courtaney's star firmly in the ascendant, and he was to rise to even greater heights the following year as the lead actor in John Schlesinger's Billy Liar (1963).
The film caused a furore at the time, and its anti-authoritarian agenda ran into problems with the British Board of Film Censors, which described its story as 'blatant and very trying Communist propaganda, and particularly worrying for us because the hero is a thief and yet is held up to the admiration of silly young thugs'. (Aldgate, 2005) Thus, censorship is a key point of issue highlighted in the discussion of the film. However, it also explores the novel features of the camerawork and editing for its time, the originality of the musical score, and debates the borrowings from the French New Wave, as well as, finally, the way in which the film continued to break new ground in British cinema of the day, and its lasting influence.
Alfie (1966)
Alfie is a 1966 British film directed by Lewis Gilbert, and adapted from the novel and play of the same name by Bill Naughton. The film follows the character of Alfie Elkins, an East End 'wide boy' who treats women as a commodity. A jack of all trades, he will try for an affair with whoever steps into the path of his present employment, be it street photography or chauffeuring. Not until he goes with an older, well-heeled American does Alfie receive a taste of his own medicine by discovering that she is cheating on him with a 'younger' man.
Alfie’s cocksure narration to the camera invests the character with a certain charm, even as he is horribly chauvinistic. For example, when he is toying with Sheffield girl Annie, whose crying after sex sets him thinking, he manages to wheedle an apology from her: 'Alfie, I said to myself, she’s as human as you are'.
As the movie progresses, and Alfie’s lifestyle begins to catch up with him, we learn that he is actually very attached to his inconvenient son, and that Alfie’s opinion on attachment is that it only leads to pain. At the movie’s most poignant point, we are the only ones to see him cry at the sight of a foetus, aborted by a woman who he got pregnant during a one-night stand.
Finally, Alfie regains his single way of life, but without his peace of mind. It leaves him wondering 'what’s it all about?'. He walks away, leaving the audience genuinely wishing that they could answer him.
Throughout the film, the fourth wall is continually broken, and so the audience is fed a running commentary from the character of Alfie, usually explaining his personal thoughts, or the reasons for his behaviour. However, as philandering and as emotionally distant as Alfie might be, there are actually two main reasons as to why he is communicating with the audience, both of which are quite revealing of his character. The first is that he is talking to the audience in order to explain and justify his actions. The second is that Alfie is actually more comfortable exposing any kind of personal or emotional experience to the audience, rather than to any of the other characters. Combined, these two demands on the audience turn the viewers into Alfie’s personal support system.
When Alfie speaks directly to the audience, they almost become conspirators to his indiscretions. His acknowledgment that the audience is there forces them together as accomplices whilst he sleeps his way around London, leaving a trail of feminine distress in his wake. The purpose of this is to make those watching feel immoral, as if they are a part of his actions.
Not only does Alfie acknowledge his audience's existence, but the form in which the audience is viewing him. Alfie is aware that he is being watched through a film, as at the start, he says 'I suppose you think you're gonna see the bleedin' titles now', after the name of the film appears onscreen for a few seconds. He follows this with 'Well, you're not, so you can all relax', enforcing the point that Alfie not only knows that he is being used as a form of entertainment, but also that he hopes that the audience enjoys themselves as much as possible. By telling them that the film will not waste their time by showing the titles, and suggesting that they relax, Alfie's arrogance and conceited character traits are reflected.
Alfie's view on relationships between men and women is rather disjointed, due to the experience of his ex-girlfriend taking his son, and marrying another man, whom Alfie's son now calls 'dad'. This view is reinforced when Alfie attempts to compare Harry's relationship with both his wife and children. Alfie tries to push his point of view onto Harry, basically stating that both women and children cannot be fully trusted. When Harry obviously reacts angrily to this, Alfie says 'all I want is for you to see life, see what it is, and what it does to you', and that he never wanted to hurt Harry or anyone else.
Based on Alfie's attitude towards life, he will not take responsibility for his own actions, and believes that everyone else is at fault. For example, Alfie is responsible for Lily's unwanted pregnancy, but it is Lily who pays the abortionist. Alfie justifies his lack of concern for Lily by believing that all men are the same as him: 'My understanding of women only goes as far as the pleasure. When it comes to the pain, I'm like every other bloke. I don't wanna know.' Once Lily is induced, Alfie gives her the tablets to take in case her temperature rises, indicating that he intends to leave her in agony on her own. Outside, Alfie says to the audience 'I know it don't look nice - goin' off and leavin' her', because he realises how the audience might view this action as brutal.
The protracted backstreet abortion administered to the married Lily is one of the most important aspects of the film; all the more scourging a watch for its context. Abortion was made legal in Britain 1967, which was the year after the film’s release. (Wakefield, 2018) The sight of his lifeless baby moves Alfie, surprisingly, to tears, but - as he puts it - 'not for him - he was past it; for my bleeding self'. However, based on Alfie's facial expression and voice tone, the audience can tell that he is lying, and is crying for the child. It becomes apparent that he feels guilty after secretly paying Lily back the fee.
Lewis Gilbert, the director of the film, was nominated for the 'Best Picture' award at the 1967 Academy Awards ceremony, and won the 'Jury Prize' award at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival. Michael Caine, who acted the role of Alfie Elkins, was nominated for an award each at the 1967 Academy Awards ceremony and the 1967 Golden Globes Awards. He also won the 'Best Actor' award at the 1966 Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards, as well as an award of the same name at the 1967 National Society of Film Critics. (IMDb, b) Vivien Merchant, who acted the role of Lily Clamacraft won the 'Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles' award at the 1967 BAFTA Film Awards. The film itself won the 'Best English-Language Foreign Film' award at the 1967 Golden Globes Awards.
In terms of legacy, the film was followed by a sequel known as Alfie Darling (1975), with Alan Price replacing Michael Caine. In addition, a 2004 remake was released, which starred Jude Law as the titular character.
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